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Women's Empowerment in Agricultural Governance (WEAGov) technical workshop: India pilot study
Ragasa, Catherine; Kyle, Jordan; Yasmin, Sabina; Pande, Harshita; Basu, Sampurna; Sharma, Aanshi. 2024
Ragasa, Catherine; Kyle, Jordan; Yasmin, Sabina; Pande, Harshita; Basu, Sampurna; Sharma, Aanshi. 2024
Abstract | Link
Gender Equality research initiative Gender Equality (HER+) is a One CGIAR Research Initiative seeking to address the following four dimensions of gender inequality in agrifood systems: o Women’s lack of agency or limited ability to define and act on goals, make decisions that matter to them, and participate in the economy and in public life; o Women’s lack of access to and control over resources; o Social norms that discriminate based on gender; and o Policies and governance that fail to include and benefit women.
HER+ uses impactful gender research to address the four dimensions of gender inequality by applying gender-transformative approaches to address harmful norms. It does this by bundling innovations for women’s empowerment, leveraging social protection to increase women’s access to and control over resources, and promoting inclusive governance and policies for increased resilience. HER+ will generate learning and evidence on levers and entry points to disrupt the foundations of inequality in agrifood systems (AFS).
Women's Empowerment in Agricultural Governance (WEAGov) technical workshop: India pilot study
Ragasa, Catherine; Kyle, Jordan; Yasmin, Sabina; Pande, Harshita; Basu, Sampurna; Sharma, Aanshi. 2024
Ragasa, Catherine; Kyle, Jordan; Yasmin, Sabina; Pande, Harshita; Basu, Sampurna; Sharma, Aanshi. 2024
Abstract | Link
Gender Equality research initiative Gender Equality (HER+) is a One CGIAR Research Initiative seeking to address the following four dimensions of gender inequality in agrifood systems: o Women’s lack of agency or limited ability to define and act on goals, make decisions that matter to them, and participate in the economy and in public life; o Women’s lack of access to and control over resources; o Social norms that discriminate based on gender; and o Policies and governance that fail to include and benefit women.
HER+ uses impactful gender research to address the four dimensions of gender inequality by applying gender-transformative approaches to address harmful norms. It does this by bundling innovations for women’s empowerment, leveraging social protection to increase women’s access to and control over resources, and promoting inclusive governance and policies for increased resilience. HER+ will generate learning and evidence on levers and entry points to disrupt the foundations of inequality in agrifood systems (AFS).
Task or time? Comparing methods for measuring the gender distribution of work
Banerjee, Archis; Kumar, Neha; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. 2024
Banerjee, Archis; Kumar, Neha; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. 2024
Abstract | Link
There is growing evidence that gender disparities in the distribution of paid and unpaid work impose constraints on women’s well-being and livelihoods, reducing access to paid employment, and time for education, leisure, and social activities. Yet, gender disparities in unpaid work often go undiagnosed by traditional household surveys. While time-use surveys are well-suited for measuring unpaid work, they are often expensive to administer and take substantial amounts of survey time, leading to respondent fatigue, particularly in multi-topic surveys where other outcomes are also being collected.
Empowering women in agriculture: The role of the WEAI in Bangladesh
Ahmed, Akhter; Bakhtiar, M. Mehrab; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Malapit, Hazel J.; Ghostlaw, Julie. Washington, DC 2023
Ahmed, Akhter; Bakhtiar, M. Mehrab; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Malapit, Hazel J.; Ghostlaw, Julie. Washington, DC 2023
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.136634
Abstract | PDF (1.1 MB)
Empowering women is crucial for a country's development because it leads to greater economic growth, increased productivity, and improved social outcomes. When women have access to education, economic opportunities, and decision-making power, they are better able to contribute to their families and communities. This can lead to increased income, improved health and education outcomes, and reduced poverty. In Bangladesh, women and girls still face considerable barriers to accessing education and economic opportunities, and are often subjected to traditional gender roles that may hinder them. Although women play a crucial role in agriculture, they experience many challenges that limit their productivity and economic potential, such as limited access to credit and training. They are also often marginalized and excluded from decision-making processes. As the complexity and importance of gender equity in development work has increased, so too has the need to measure empowerment and progress made toward improving empowerment and achieving gender parity. In Bangladesh, there has been growing momentum by the government and development partners to use evidence to inform gender-sensitive and -responsive policies and programs. The Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) has emerged as a key tool to achieve this objective. This brief examines how WEAI data have informed and supported the design of policies and programs to promote women's empowerment in Bangladesh.
Is women’s empowerment bearing fruit? Mapping women’s empowerment in agriculture index (WEAI) results using the gender and food systems framework
Myers, Emily; Heckert, Jessica; Faas, Simone; Malapit, Hazel J.; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Raghunathan, Kalyani; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. Washington, DC 2023
Myers, Emily; Heckert, Jessica; Faas, Simone; Malapit, Hazel J.; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Raghunathan, Kalyani; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. Washington, DC 2023
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.136722
Abstract | PDF
We conduct a synthetic review of the literature examining relationships between domains of women’s empowerment and food system outcomes. Many studies report significant positive associations between women’s empowerment and intrahousehold gender equality with child dietary and nutrition outcomes, household food security, and agricultural production, but which aspect of empowerment matters for a particular outcome varies across contexts. Others document significant but mixed associations between empowerment indicators and women’s dietary diversity scores. The findings suggest women’s empowerment contributes to improved diets and nutritional status, especially for children, but that household wealth, gender norms and country-specific institutions remain important. Most papers reviewed were based on observational studies and therefore estimated associations; future research using experimental and quasi-experimental methods would add significantly to the evidence base.
Women’s empowerment in Rwandan agriculture: A baseline assessment in the context of Rwanda’s gender and youth mainstreaming strategy and the fourth strategic plan for agricultural transformation
Rosenbach, Gracie; Benimana, Gilberthe; Ingabire, Chantal; Spielman, David J.; Tumukunde, Ritha. Washington, DC 2023
Rosenbach, Gracie; Benimana, Gilberthe; Ingabire, Chantal; Spielman, David J.; Tumukunde, Ritha. Washington, DC 2023
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.136776
Abstract | PDF
Rwanda is a recognized leader in the region and in the world in terms of women’s empowerment. However, no country has yet achieved full gender equality, resulting in untapped potential. The findings from the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) baseline survey conducted in 2019 for the Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources (MINAGRI), indicated that women and men in Rwanda both have relatively high levels of empowerment across different agricultural do mains, and most women are as empowered as men in their households. This working paper dis cusses the findings further and in the context of MINAGRI’s Gender and Youth Mainstreaming Strategy that was also launched in 2019, as well as the Fourth Strategic Plan for Agricultural Transformation (PSTA 4). Key findings include the following.
• Compared to other countries in the region, women in Rwanda have relatively greater access to financial services and a relatively lower time burden in agriculture.
• However, when compared to men in Rwanda, inequalities persist. Women are significantly less likely than men to access financial services, participate in the marketing of agricultural commodities, access extension services, and spend their time on productive (rather than reproductive) work.
By adapting and promoting innovative and gender-inclusive financial products, shifting gendered cultural norms, providing extension to both the household head and the spouse, and investing in time-saving technologies and innovations, there are opportunities to reduce the gender gap in agriculture and increase agricultural productivity. Realization of these outcomes will depend partly on the implementation of the Gender and Youth Mainstreaming Strategy and PSTA 4, and partly on coordination with other gender-transformative programs in Rwanda.
• Compared to other countries in the region, women in Rwanda have relatively greater access to financial services and a relatively lower time burden in agriculture.
• However, when compared to men in Rwanda, inequalities persist. Women are significantly less likely than men to access financial services, participate in the marketing of agricultural commodities, access extension services, and spend their time on productive (rather than reproductive) work.
By adapting and promoting innovative and gender-inclusive financial products, shifting gendered cultural norms, providing extension to both the household head and the spouse, and investing in time-saving technologies and innovations, there are opportunities to reduce the gender gap in agriculture and increase agricultural productivity. Realization of these outcomes will depend partly on the implementation of the Gender and Youth Mainstreaming Strategy and PSTA 4, and partly on coordination with other gender-transformative programs in Rwanda.
Synopsis: Women’s empowerment in Rwandan agriculture: A baseline assessment in the context of Rwanda’s gender and youth mainstreaming strategy and the fourth strategic plan for agricultural transformation
Rosenbach, Gracie; Benimana, Gilberthe; Ingabire, Chantal; Spielman, David J.; Tumukunde, Ritha. Washington, DC 2023
Rosenbach, Gracie; Benimana, Gilberthe; Ingabire, Chantal; Spielman, David J.; Tumukunde, Ritha. Washington, DC 2023
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.136825
Abstract | PDF (295.6 KB)
Rwanda is a recognized leader in the region and the world in terms of women’s empowerment. However, no country has yet achieved full gender equality, resulting in untapped potential for improvement. The findings from the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) baseline survey conducted in 2019 for the Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources (MINAGRI) indicate that women and men in Rwanda have both relatively high levels of empowerment across different agricultural domains, while many women are as empowered as men in their households, some gender disparities remain.
Uncovering more than a decade of WEAI use in USAID projects
Moore, Lindsey; Dissanayake, Madhu; Malapit, Hazel J.; Go, Ara. Washington, DC 2023
Moore, Lindsey; Dissanayake, Madhu; Malapit, Hazel J.; Go, Ara. Washington, DC 2023
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.136856
Abstract | PDF (1.4 MB)
Since its launch in 2012, the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) has been widely used in USAID projects to prioritize and target activities that aim to promote women’s empowerment. It has been implemented in at least 37 countries by more than 200 partners and 60 different USAID operating units, offering valuable insights into the gender dynamics of agricultural production and identifying opportunities to enhance gender equality and women’s empowerment. By providing a more nuanced understanding of the challenges that women encounter in the agricultural sector, WEAI has played a crucial role in enhancing the ability of USAID programming to improve the lives of women and their families.
This report presents key findings gathered from all reported WEAI use cases in the Development Experience Clearinghouse (DEC), the largest resource for USAID-funded technical and project materials. A use case refers to a unique, real-world ex ample in which WEAI has been applied or utilized. A use case can demonstrate how WEAI has been used in a specific context or project, providing insight into its effectiveness, limitations, and potential for future applications. Together, these findings highlight the importance of WEAI as a tool for promoting gender equality and empowering women in the agricultural sector, while also providing useful insights that can inform future policies and programs.
This report presents key findings gathered from all reported WEAI use cases in the Development Experience Clearinghouse (DEC), the largest resource for USAID-funded technical and project materials. A use case refers to a unique, real-world ex ample in which WEAI has been applied or utilized. A use case can demonstrate how WEAI has been used in a specific context or project, providing insight into its effectiveness, limitations, and potential for future applications. Together, these findings highlight the importance of WEAI as a tool for promoting gender equality and empowering women in the agricultural sector, while also providing useful insights that can inform future policies and programs.
A multi-country validation and sensitivity analysis of the project level Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (Pro-WEAI)
Seymour, Greg; Faas, Simone; Ferguson, Nathaniel; Heckert, Jessica; Malapit, Hazel J.; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; van Biljon, Chloe; Gender Agriculture Assets Project Phase 2 Study Team. Washington, DC 2023
Seymour, Greg; Faas, Simone; Ferguson, Nathaniel; Heckert, Jessica; Malapit, Hazel J.; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; van Biljon, Chloe; Gender Agriculture Assets Project Phase 2 Study Team. Washington, DC 2023
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.136974
Abstract | PDF (995.3 KB)
We discuss the evolution of the project-level Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI) from its initial launch in 2018 until early 2023. We explain the reasons motivating changes to the composition of pro-WEAI and the adequacy thresholds of several indicators and discuss the implications of both for the overall measurement of project impacts on women’s empowerment. We present supporting empirical results comparing projects’ impacts calculated using the abbreviated Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (A-WEAI) (the predecessor to pro-WEAI with fewer indicators and less stringent indicator cut-offs), the pilot 12-indicator version of pro-WEAI, and the final, revised 10-indicator version of pro-WEAI, based on longitudinal data from six agricultural development projects in East and West Africa and South Asia as part of the Gender, Agriculture, and Assets Project, Phase 2 (GAAP2). In addition, we assess the sensitivity of the revised pro-WEAI to an alternative weighting scheme, namely inverse covariance weighting (ICW). Overall, we find that the revised pro-WEAI performs well: In comparison to A-WEAI, pro-WEAI—regardless of version—identifies larger and more frequently significant impact estimates, indicating that pro-WEAI is more sensitive to detecting project impacts on women’s empowerment than A-WEAI. And we find only minor differences in impact estimates produced using the 12-indicator, 10-indicator, or alternate weighting scheme versions of pro-WEAI. We conclude with reflections on six years of work on pro-WEAI during GAAP2.
WEAI-Climate Stakeholder Consultation Workshop
Bryan, Elizabeth; Magalhaes, Marilia; Go, Ara; Malapit, Hazel J.. Washington, DC 2023
Bryan, Elizabeth; Magalhaes, Marilia; Go, Ara; Malapit, Hazel J.. Washington, DC 2023
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.137053
Abstract | PDF (400.2 KB)
The Methods Module of the CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform convened a group of experts on climate change and gender from CGIAR and partner organizations at a workshop held in Washington, DC, November 9-10, 2023. The goal of the workshop was to identify measurement gaps and best practices to support the development of a new tool for measuring women’s empowerment in the context of climate change and resilience. This new tool will complement the existing project-level Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI) and will be developed and piloted in collaboration with IFPRI’s Gender, Climate Change and Nutrition Integration Initiative (GCAN) over the next two years.
Women’s Empowerment in Agrifood Governance (WEAGov) assessment framework: A pilot study in Nigeria
Ragasa, Catherine; Kyle, Jordan; Onoja, Anthony Ojonimi; Achika, Anthonia I.; Adejoh, Stella O.; Onyenekwe, Chinasa S; Koledoye, Gbenga; Ujor, Gloria C.; Nwali, Perpetual Nkechi. Washington, DC 2023
Ragasa, Catherine; Kyle, Jordan; Onoja, Anthony Ojonimi; Achika, Anthonia I.; Adejoh, Stella O.; Onyenekwe, Chinasa S; Koledoye, Gbenga; Ujor, Gloria C.; Nwali, Perpetual Nkechi. Washington, DC 2023
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.137059
Abstract | PDF (2.7 MB)
Women’s equal participation and leadership in political and public life can boost a country’s long-run economic growth, foster social inclusion, and help countries reach the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Beyond these important outcomes, women’s inclusion in public life is a basic human right: women deserve a role in making decisions, controlling resources, and shaping policies. Despite the importance of women’s voices and their empowerment in policy and decision-making processes, it is far easier to lament their absence than to define and measure them. We know that political empowerment, measured in terms of the share of women in government ministries and parliament, is low and is the weakest dimension in the Global Gender Gap. Yet such national statistics, while important and informative, risk mismeasuring women’s participation and influence in public life and do not give policymakers and advocacy organizations traction on specific gaps and opportunities for increasing women’s voice in policymaking. With this situation in mind and focusing on agrifood systems, which are crucial for delivering the SDGs, we developed an assessment framework—Women’s Empowerment in Agrifood Governance (WEAGov)— to assess women’s voice and empowerment in national policy processes in agrifood systems. This paper presents the first pilot-testing of WEAGov in Nigeria. In this paper, we present how the WEAGov tool works in the Nigerian context, analyze the data, and provide diagnostic on the status of women’s voice and empowerment in the agrifood policy process. As discussed in this paper, the pilot-testing in Nigeria provides useful lessons toward improving the measurement for future use and provides valuable policy insights on critical entry points for increasing women’s voice and empowerment in the national agrifood policy process.
Measuring women’s empowerment and gender equality through the lens of induced innovation
Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Malapit, Hazel J.. Singapore 2023
Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Malapit, Hazel J.. Singapore 2023
DOI : 10.1007/978-981-19-5542-6_25
Abstract | Link
Using the lens of the theory of induced innovation, we reflect on the development of metrics for women’s empowerment and gender equality. The Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI), launched in 2012, was used to monitor women’s inclusion in agricultural sector growth. Demand by WEAI users and the supply of tools and methods from researchers shaped the ongoing evolution of the tool to a shorter version and to another that reflected what agricultural development projects deemed meaningful to judge project success. Eventual modifications reflected user demand: a greater interest in market inclusion and value chains stimulated the development of specialized modules for market inclusion. WEAI-related metrics have demonstrated the importance of women’s empowerment for development outcomes, helping governments and civil society organizations design and implement gender-sensitive agricultural development programs. Finally, the adoption of SDG5 on women’s empowerment and gender equality created a demand for a measure of women’s empowerment for use by national statistical systems. Whether such a metric will be adopted globally will depend on the demand from, and utility to, stakeholders as well as existing capacity, capacity-building efforts, a belief in the intrinsic value of women’s empowerment, and the commitment of resources to attaining this goal.
Development and validation of a health and nutrition module for the project-level Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI+HN)
Heckert, Jessica; Martinez, Elena M.; Seymour, Greg; Pereira, Audrey; Roy, Shalini; Kim, Sunny S.; Malapit, Hazel J.. 2023
Heckert, Jessica; Martinez, Elena M.; Seymour, Greg; Pereira, Audrey; Roy, Shalini; Kim, Sunny S.; Malapit, Hazel J.. 2023
DOI : 10.1111/mcn.13464
Abstract | Link
Agricultural development projects increasingly aim to improve health and nutrition outcomes, often by engaging women. Although evidence shows such projects can improve women's and children's health and nutrition and empower women, little is known about their impacts on women's health- and nutrition-related agency and the extent to which impacts emerge through women's empowerment, largely due to a lack of instruments that measure the dimensions of women's agency that are directly relevant to health and nutrition outcomes. We developed an optional, complementary module for the project-level women's empowerment in agriculture index (pro-WEAI) to measure health- and nutrition-related agency (pro-WEAI + HN). Our method for developing related indicators used data collected from six agricultural development programmes implemented across Bangladesh, Burkina Faso and Mali (pooled sample = 12,114) and applied psychometric analysis (exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis) and the Alkire−Foster methodology. Results revealed seven indicators covering women's agency in the areas of her own health and diet; her health and diet during pregnancy; her child's diet; breastfeeding and weaning; purchasing food and health products; and acquiring food and health products. Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis revealed measurement invariance across contexts and samples. Tests of association (Cramer's V) and redundancy suggest that the pro-WEAI + HN indicators measured aspects of agency that are distinct from the core pro-WEAI. The uptake of these indicators in studies of nutrition-sensitive agricultural development projects may strengthen the evidence on how such programming can enhance women's empowerment to improve health and nutrition outcomes for themselves and their children.
Assessing multicountry programs through a “Reach, Benefit, Empower, Transform” lens
Quisumbing, Agnes; Gerli, Beatrice; Faas, Simone; Heckert, Jessica; Malapit, Hazel; McCarron, Catherine; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth; Paz, Florencia. 2023
Quisumbing, Agnes; Gerli, Beatrice; Faas, Simone; Heckert, Jessica; Malapit, Hazel; McCarron, Catherine; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth; Paz, Florencia. 2023
DOI : 10.1016/j.gfs.2023.100685
Can a gender-sensitive integrated poultry value chain and nutrition intervention increase women's empowerment among the rural poor in Burkina Faso?
Heckert, Jessica; Martinez, Elena M.; Sanou, Armande; Pedehombga, Abdoulaye; Ganaba, Rasmané; Gelli, Aulo. 2023
Heckert, Jessica; Martinez, Elena M.; Sanou, Armande; Pedehombga, Abdoulaye; Ganaba, Rasmané; Gelli, Aulo. 2023
DOI : 10.1016/j.jrurstud.2023.103026
Abstract | Link (37 B)
Understanding the types of food systems interventions that foster women's empowerment and the types of women that are able to benefit from different interventions is important for development policy. SELEVER was a gender- and nutrition-sensitive poultry production intervention implemented in western Burkina Faso from 2017 to 2020 that aimed to empower women. We evaluated SELEVER using a mixed-methods cluster-randomized controlled trial, which included survey data from 1763 households at baseline and endline and a sub-sample for two interim lean season surveys. We used the multidimensional project-level Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI), which consists of 12 binary indicators, underlying count versions of 10 of these, an aggregate empowerment score (continuous) and a binary aggregate empowerment indicator, all for women and men. Women's and men's scores were compared to assess gender parity. We also assessed impacts on health and nutrition agency using the pro-WEAI health and nutrition module. We estimated program impact using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) models and examined whether there were differential impacts by flock size or among those who participated in program activities (treatment on the treated). Program impacts on empowerment and gender parity were null, despite the program's multipronged and gender-sensitive approach. Meanwhile, results of the in-depth gender-focused qualitative work conducted near the project mid-point found there was greater awareness in the community of women's time burden and their economic contributions, but it did not seem that awareness led to increased empowerment of women. We reflect on possible explanations for the null findings. One notable explanation may be the lack of a productive asset transfer, which have previously been shown to be essential, but not sufficient, for the empowerment of women in agricultural development programs. We consider these findings in light of current debates on asset transfers. Unfortunately, null impacts on women's empowerment are not uncommon, and it is important to learn from such findings to strengthen future program design and delivery.
Measuring women’s empowerment in agriculture: Innovations and evidence
Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Cole, Steven; Elias, Marlene; Faas, Simone; Galie, Alessandra; Malapit, Hazel; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth; Myers, Emily; Seymour, Greg; Twyman, Jennifer. 2023
Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Cole, Steven; Elias, Marlene; Faas, Simone; Galie, Alessandra; Malapit, Hazel; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth; Myers, Emily; Seymour, Greg; Twyman, Jennifer. 2023
DOI : 10.1016/j.gfs.2023.100707
Abstract | Link
This paper addresses women's empowerment in agriculture, innovations in its measurement, and emerging evidence. We discuss the evolution of the conceptualization and measurement of women's empowerment and gender equality since 2010. Using a gender and food systems framework and a standardized measure of women's empowerment, the Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI), we review the evidence on “what works” to empower women based on impact evaluations of a portfolio of 11 agricultural development projects with empowerment objectives and a scoping review of livestock interventions. We then review the evidence on associations between empowering women and societal benefits--agricultural productivity, incomes, and food security and nutrition. We conclude with recommendations for measurement and policy.
Women’s empowerment and COVID-19: A case study from Kenya
van Biljon, Chloe; Seymour, Greg. Washington, DC 2022
van Biljon, Chloe; Seymour, Greg. Washington, DC 2022
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.135041
Abstract | PDF (661.7 KB)
Research shows that the experience of the COVID-19 pandemic varied greatly by country, class, race and gender (Pangborn & Rea, 2020). In this study we aim to understand how the COVID-19 pandemic affected empowered and disempowered individuals differently. This policy note summarizes how income was affected by the pandemic, followed by an assessment of coping mechanisms with the crisis and their interactions with women’s empowerment.
Does the UN Joint Program for Rural Women’s Economic Empowerment (JP RWEE) deliver on its empowerment objectives?
Quisumbing, Agnes; Gerli, Beatrice; Faas, Simone; Heckert, Jessica; Malapit, Hazel J.; McCarron, Catherine; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Paz, Florencia. Washington, DC 2022
Quisumbing, Agnes; Gerli, Beatrice; Faas, Simone; Heckert, Jessica; Malapit, Hazel J.; McCarron, Catherine; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Paz, Florencia. Washington, DC 2022
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.136302
Abstract | PDF (1.9 MB)
This paper compares the empowerment impacts of the UN Joint Program for Rural Women’s Economic Empowerment (JP RWEE) in Ethiopia, Niger, Nepal, and Kyrgyzstan using the Abbreviated Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (A-WEAI). We assess the extent of empowerment and gender parity, and decompose the sources of disempowerment, separately for men and women and for beneficiary and control groups. We then estimate program impacts on A-WEAI and its component indicators and assess whether estimated impacts are consistent with the activities implemented by the program. We interpret the quantitative results in the light of the qualitative studies undertaken as part of the impact evaluation. Despite the diversity in country and cultural contexts, in all four countries, women are more disempowered than men, although large proportions of men are themselves disempowered. Excessive workload is the most common major contributor to disempowerment, and so is lack of group membership. The program had positive impacts on aggregate empowerment measures for program participants in Niger, Nepal, and Kyrgyzstan. Nevertheless, gender parity improved only in Nepal. The group-based approach was a clear contributor to women’s empowerment in Ethiopia, Nepal, and Kyrgyzstan. In Kyrgyzstan, the GALS/BALI approach contributed to impacts across almost all indicators of empowerment. The positive impact of GALS and GALS/BALI on men and women alike in Kyrgyzstan is consistent with emerging evidence that involving both men and women in gender transformative approaches, rather than focusing on women alone, may be key to effective and sustainable programs. Although impacts on time use were insignificant in the quantitative study, the qualitative work pointed out negative impacts, emphasizing the unintended consequences of increased workload for women who participate in livelihood interventions.
Schooling impacts of an unconditional cash transfer program in Mali
Sessou, Eric; Hidrobo, Melissa; Roy, Shalini; Huybregts, Lieven. Washington, DC 2022
Sessou, Eric; Hidrobo, Melissa; Roy, Shalini; Huybregts, Lieven. Washington, DC 2022
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.136404
Abstract | PDF (1 MB)
In rural West Africa, the rate of out-of-school children is high and delayed entry to primary school is common, particularly for girls. Using the randomized roll-out of an unconditional cash transfer program (Jigisemejiri) in Mali, we examine its impact on child schooling by age and sex. The program leads to significant improvements in schooling outcomes for girls, but not boys. Improvements among girls are especially salient among younger (ages 6–9) and older (ages 15–18) girls. Pathway analysis reveals that the program reduces the time younger girls spend in agricultural work at home and the time older girls spend in domestic work as well as self-employment. Households in the program also spend more on education for older girls in terms of school fees, materials, and transport.
Can agricultural development projects empower women? A synthesis of mixed methods evaluations using pro-WEAI in the gender, agriculture, and assets project (phase 2) portfolio
Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Malapit, Hazel J.; Seymour, Greg; Heckert, Jessica; Doss, Cheryl; Johnson, Nancy; Rubin, Deborah; Thai, Giang; Ramani, Gayathri V.; Myers, Emily; GAAP2 for pro-WEAI Study Team. Washington, DC 2022
Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Malapit, Hazel J.; Seymour, Greg; Heckert, Jessica; Doss, Cheryl; Johnson, Nancy; Rubin, Deborah; Thai, Giang; Ramani, Gayathri V.; Myers, Emily; GAAP2 for pro-WEAI Study Team. Washington, DC 2022
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.136405
Abstract | PDF (1.6 MB)
Agricultural development projects increasingly include women’s empowerment and gender equality among their objectives, but efforts to evaluate their impact have been stymied by the lack of comparable measures. Moreover, the context-specificity of empowerment implies that a quantitative measure alone will be inadequate to capture the nuances of the empowerment process. The Gender, Agriculture, and Assets Project, Phase 2 (GAAP2), a portfolio of 13 agricultural development projects in nine countries in South Asia and Africa, developed the project-level Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI) and qualitative protocols for impact evaluations. Pro-WEAI covers three major types of agencies: instrumental, intrinsic, and collective. This paper synthesizes the results of 11 mixed-methods evaluations to assess these projects’ empowerment impacts. The projects implemented the pro-WEAI and its associated qualitative protocols in their impact evaluations. Our synthesis finds mixed, and mostly null impacts on aggregate indicators of women’s empowerment, with positive impacts more likely in the South Asian, rather than African, cases. There were more significant impacts on instrumental agency indicators and collective agency indicators, reflecting the group-based approaches used. We found few significant impacts on intrinsic agency indicators, except for those projects that intentionally addressed gender norms. Quantitative analysis does not show an association between the types of strategies that projects implemented and their impacts, except for capacity building strategies. This finding reveals the limitations of quantitative analysis, given the small number of projects involved. The qualitative studies provide more nuance and insight: some base level of empowerment and forms of agency may be necessary for women to participate in project activities, to benefit or further increase their empowerment. Our results highlight the need for projects to focus specifically on empowerment, rather than assume that projects aiming to reach and benefit women automatically empower them. Our study also shows the value of both a common metric to compare empowerment impacts across projects and contexts and qualitative work to understand and contextualize these impacts.
Can a gender-sensitive integrated poultry value chain and nutrition intervention among the rural poor increase women’s empowerment in Burkina Faso?
Heckert, Jessica; Martinez, Elena M.; Sanou, Armande; Pedehombga, Abdoulaye; Ganaba, Rasmané; Gelli, Aulo. Washington, DC 2022
Heckert, Jessica; Martinez, Elena M.; Sanou, Armande; Pedehombga, Abdoulaye; Ganaba, Rasmané; Gelli, Aulo. Washington, DC 2022
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.136428
Abstract | PDF (889 KB)
Understanding the types of food systems interventions that foster women’s empowerment and the types of women that are able to benefit from different interventions is important for development policy. SELEVER was a gender- and nutrition-sensitive poultry production intervention implemented in western Burkina Faso from 2017 to 2020 that aimed to empower women. We evaluated SELEVER using a mixed-methods cluster-randomized controlled trial, which included survey data from 1763 households at baseline and endline and a sub-sample for two interim lean season surveys. We used the multidimensional project-level Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI), which consists of 12 binary indicators, underlying count versions of 10 of these, an aggregate empowerment score (continuous) and a binary aggregate empowerment indicator, all for women and men. Women’s and men’s scores were compared to assess gender parity. We also assessed impacts on health and nutrition agency using the pro-WEAI health and nutrition module. We estimated program impact using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) models and examined whether there were differential impacts by flock size or among those who participated in program activities. Program impacts on empowerment and gender parity were null, despite the program’s careful approach to developing a gender-sensitive intervention. Meanwhile, results of the in-depth gender-focused qualitative work conducted near the project mid-point found there was greater awareness in the community of women’s time burden and their economic contributions, but it did not seem that awareness led to increased empowerment of women. We reflect on possible explanations for the null findings. One notable explanation may be the lack of a productive asset transfer, which have previously been shown to be essential, but not sufficient, for the empowerment of women in agricultural development programs. We consider these findings in light of current debates on asset transfers. Unfortunately, null impacts on women’s empowerment are not uncommon, and it is important to learn from such findings to strengthen future program design and delivery.
Edutainment, gender and intra-household decision-making in agriculture: A field experiment in Kenya
Aju, Stellamaris; Kramer, Berber; Waithaka, Lilian. Washington, DC 2022
Aju, Stellamaris; Kramer, Berber; Waithaka, Lilian. Washington, DC 2022
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.136486
Abstract | PDF (471.4 KB)
Oftentimes, a man’s opinion is valued over a woman’s, with women expected to take a back seat when decisions are made in their households and in society (Kawarazuka et al., 2019). Such social norms create unequal participation between female and male smallholder farmers in African agriculture. Additionally, it puts women in positions where they can be abused (and tolerate abuse), especially by their spouses. This is a threat to women’s empowerment, increasing gender gaps in society and within families. It is therefore imperative to address societal norms that do not allow a level playing ground for both sexes in agriculture.
Women’s empowerment and gender equality in South Asian agriculture: Measuring progress using the project-level Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI) in Bangladesh and India
Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Malapit, Hazel J.. 2022
Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Malapit, Hazel J.. 2022
DOI : 10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105396
Understanding the pathways to women’s empowerment in Northern Ghana and the relationship with small-scale irrigation
Bryan, Elizabeth; Garner, Elisabeth. 2022
Bryan, Elizabeth; Garner, Elisabeth. 2022
DOI : 10.1007/s10460-021-10291-1
Abstract | Link (37 B)
Women’s empowerment is often an important goal of development interventions. This paper explores local perceptions of empowerment in the Upper East Region of Ghana and the pathways through which small-scale irrigation intervention targeted to men and women farmers contributes to women’s empowerment. Using qualitative data collected with 144 farmers and traders through 28 individual interviews and 16 focus group discussions, this paper innovates a framework to integrate the linkages between small-scale irrigation and three dimensions of women’s empowerment: resources, agency, and achievements. The relationship between the components of empowerment and small-scale irrigation are placed within a larger context of social change underlying these relationships. This shows that many women face serious constraints to participating in and benefitting from small-scale irrigation, including difficulties accessing land and water and gender norms that limit women’s ability to control farm assets. Despite these constraints, many women do benefit from participating in irrigated farming activities leading to an increase in their agency and well-being achievements. For some women, these benefits are indirect—these women allocate their time to more preferred activities when the household gains access to modern irrigation technology. The result is a new approach to understanding women’s empowerment in relation to irrigation technology.
Women's empowerment, extended families and male migration in Nepal: Insights from mixed methods analysis
Doss, Cheryl R.; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Pereira, Audrey; Pradhan, Rajendra. 2022
Doss, Cheryl R.; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Pereira, Audrey; Pradhan, Rajendra. 2022
DOI : 10.1016/j.jrurstud.2022.01.003
Abstract | Link (37 B)
Highlights
•Combining qualitative and quantitative methods sheds new light on women's empowerment processes.
•Upper caste Nepali women are disempowered by patriarchy; lower caste women by poverty and patriarchy.
•Non-migrant husbands mediate the disempowering effects of living with in-laws.
•Control over time, not just hours worked, is an important component of empowerment.
•Combining qualitative and quantitative methods sheds new light on women's empowerment processes.
•Upper caste Nepali women are disempowered by patriarchy; lower caste women by poverty and patriarchy.
•Non-migrant husbands mediate the disempowering effects of living with in-laws.
•Control over time, not just hours worked, is an important component of empowerment.
Women's empowerment, maternal depression, and stress: Evidence from rural Burkina Faso
Leight, Jessica; Pedehombga, Abdoulaye; Ganaba, Rasmané; Gelli, Aulo. 2022
Leight, Jessica; Pedehombga, Abdoulaye; Ganaba, Rasmané; Gelli, Aulo. 2022
DOI : 10.1016j.ssmmh.2022.100160
Abstract | Link
Objective: Though there is a wide array of evidence that women's empowerment is associated with more positive health and nutritional outcomes for women and children, evidence around the relationship with mental health or subjective well-being remains relatively limited. The objective of this paper is to explore this relationship in longitudinal data from rural Burkina Faso.
Methods: We analyze the association between empowerment measured using the project-level Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI), and two additional outcomes of interest: stress (measured using the SRQ-20) and maternal depression (measured using the Edinburgh scale for post-partum depression). The analysis employs both cross-sectional specifications and panel specifications conditional on individual fixed effects.
Methods: We analyze the association between empowerment measured using the project-level Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI), and two additional outcomes of interest: stress (measured using the SRQ-20) and maternal depression (measured using the Edinburgh scale for post-partum depression). The analysis employs both cross-sectional specifications and panel specifications conditional on individual fixed effects.
A qualitative assessment of a gender-sensitive agricultural training program in Benin: Findings on program experience and women’s empowerment across key agricultural value chains
Eissler, Sarah; Diatta, Ampa Dogui; Heckert, Jessica; Nordehn, Caitlin. Washington, DC 2021
Eissler, Sarah; Diatta, Ampa Dogui; Heckert, Jessica; Nordehn, Caitlin. Washington, DC 2021
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.134300
Abstract | PDF (807.4 KB)
This study presents qualitative findings from an assessment conducted by the International Food Policy Research Institute and Cultural Practice, LLC of the African Union Development Agency-New Partnership for Africa’s Development (AUDA-NEPAD) Agricultural Technical Vocational Education and Training program for women (ATVET4Women) in Benin, supported by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). ATVET4Women in Benin targets women working in value chains for four target commodities (soy, rice, chicken, and compost) to support capacity building in their respective nodes (production, processing, and marketing). The contributions of this study are multifold. First, it assesses program experiences and impacts. Second, it examines the gender dimensions of production, processing, and marketing activities in four specific value chains. Third, this research is a component of a broader study to adapt and validate the project-level Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index for market inclusion (pro-WEAI+MI) on key agricultural value chains in Benin and Malawi for ATVET4Women.
This study employed multiple qualitative methods to assess beneficiaries’ program experiences and impacts. Fifteen key informant interviews were conducted with various actors along the value chain and agro-processing center managers involved in ATVET4Women. Thirty-eight semi-structured interviews were conducted with women beneficiaries of ATVET4Women, husbands of beneficiaries, women that were involved in the value chain but did not participate in ATVET4Women, and ATVET4Women trainers. Structured observations were conducted of five ATVET4Women training centers.
In general, women beneficiaries and their husbands shared positive reviews of ATVET4Women in that the program increased women’s confidence in their abilities and taught women best practices for producing and selling higher quality products, generating higher incomes for women. Women noted several challenges and barriers to participate in ATVET4Women, including limited availability to travel to or partake in the trainings due to competing demands and priorities on their time, requiring their husbands’ permission to attend, and limited means to support travel to and from trainings. Related to findings around empowerment, results suggest that an empowered woman is closely tied to her ability to generate income, regardless of her decision-making autonomy, whereas an empowered man is one who generates higher incomes and is autonomous in his decision-making. A woman is expected to be submissive to her husband and defer to his decision-making, which holds implications for her ability to participate in activities outside of the household, including but not limited to ATVET4Women and similar programs. This study concludes with specific recommendations for ATVET4Women and similar programs to consider in future iterations of further programming to increase women’s empowerment in Benin.
This study employed multiple qualitative methods to assess beneficiaries’ program experiences and impacts. Fifteen key informant interviews were conducted with various actors along the value chain and agro-processing center managers involved in ATVET4Women. Thirty-eight semi-structured interviews were conducted with women beneficiaries of ATVET4Women, husbands of beneficiaries, women that were involved in the value chain but did not participate in ATVET4Women, and ATVET4Women trainers. Structured observations were conducted of five ATVET4Women training centers.
In general, women beneficiaries and their husbands shared positive reviews of ATVET4Women in that the program increased women’s confidence in their abilities and taught women best practices for producing and selling higher quality products, generating higher incomes for women. Women noted several challenges and barriers to participate in ATVET4Women, including limited availability to travel to or partake in the trainings due to competing demands and priorities on their time, requiring their husbands’ permission to attend, and limited means to support travel to and from trainings. Related to findings around empowerment, results suggest that an empowered woman is closely tied to her ability to generate income, regardless of her decision-making autonomy, whereas an empowered man is one who generates higher incomes and is autonomous in his decision-making. A woman is expected to be submissive to her husband and defer to his decision-making, which holds implications for her ability to participate in activities outside of the household, including but not limited to ATVET4Women and similar programs. This study concludes with specific recommendations for ATVET4Women and similar programs to consider in future iterations of further programming to increase women’s empowerment in Benin.
"It takes two": Women’s empowerment in agricultural value chains in Malawi
Ragasa, Catherine; Malapit, Hazel J.; Rubin, Deborah; Myers, Emily; Pereira, Audrey; Martinez, Elena M.; Heckert, Jessica; Seymour, Greg; Mzungu, Diston; Kalagho, Kenan; Kazembe, Cynthia; Thunde, Jack; Mswero, Grace. Washington, DC 2021
Ragasa, Catherine; Malapit, Hazel J.; Rubin, Deborah; Myers, Emily; Pereira, Audrey; Martinez, Elena M.; Heckert, Jessica; Seymour, Greg; Mzungu, Diston; Kalagho, Kenan; Kazembe, Cynthia; Thunde, Jack; Mswero, Grace. Washington, DC 2021
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.134302
Abstract | PDF (1.9 MB)
Inclusive agricultural value chains (VCs) are potential drivers for poverty reduction, food security, and women’s empowerment. This report assesses the implementation of the Agricultural Technical and Vocational Education Training for Women Program (ATVET4Women) that aims to support women with vocational training and market linkages in priority agricultural value chains. This report focuses on Malawi, one of the six pilot countries of the ATVET4Women; and focuses on vegetable value chains in which some non-formal training sessions have been conducted as of October 2019. This report presents (1) program experience of stakeholders; (2) evidence of program benefits and challenges among ATVET4Women non-formal training graduates; and (3) baseline data on value chain and empowerment indicators, using a pilot household survey-based instrument for measuring women’s empowerment in agricultural value chains (pro-WEAI for market inclusion) and supplementary qualitative research. Results show graduates’ satisfaction and appreciation of the training provided, and some graduates reported having access to more lucrative markets as a result of the training. However, positive changes in several outcome indicators were reported by only some graduates: 30 percent of graduates reported increased production and sales. There is no significant difference in the reported changes and levels of vegetable production and income between graduates and non-graduates. Qualitative findings suggest that constraints to accessing agricultural inputs and funds to upgrade their production may be why there are no measured differences. Results on empowerment status reveal that 73 percent of women and 85 percent of men in the sample are empowered, and 73 percent of the sample households achieved gender parity. The main contributor of disempowerment among women and men is lack of work balance and autonomy in income. Fewer women achieved adequacy in work balance than men. Adequacies in attitudes about domestic violence, respect among household members, input in productive decisions, and asset ownership are generally high for both women and men, but significantly lower for women. While this report is mainly descriptive and further analysis is ongoing, it offers some lessons and practical implications for improving ATVET4Women program implementation and its outcomes on women’s market access, incomes, and empowerment.
“It takes two”: Women’s empowerment in agricultural value chains
Ragasa, Catherine; Malapit, Hazel J.; Rubin, Deborah; Myers, Emily; Pereira, Audrey; Martinez, Elena M.; Heckert, Jessica; Seymour, Greg; Mzungu, Diston; Kalagho, Kenan; Kazembe, Cynthia; Thunde, Jack; Mswelo, Grace. Washington, DC 2021
Ragasa, Catherine; Malapit, Hazel J.; Rubin, Deborah; Myers, Emily; Pereira, Audrey; Martinez, Elena M.; Heckert, Jessica; Seymour, Greg; Mzungu, Diston; Kalagho, Kenan; Kazembe, Cynthia; Thunde, Jack; Mswelo, Grace. Washington, DC 2021
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.134323
Abstract | PDF (448 KB)
This brief summarizes the recent assessment of the implementation of the Agricultural Technical and Vocational Education Training for Women Program (ATVET4Women) that aims to support women and their families with vocational training and market linkages in priority agricultural value chains (VCs). The ATVET4Women program has two main components: formal training and nonformal training. Formal training consists of a 2- or 3-year vocational and technical course at an agricultural training center (ATC) where students gain skills (and a diploma) for employment or entrepreneurship in the agricultural sector. Nonformal training provides farmers with 1 to 3 weeks of training on good production and business management practices.
Evaluation of the Gender, Agriculture, and Assets Project, Phase 2 gender and empowerment frameworks and tools
Johnson, Nancy. Washington, DC 2021
Johnson, Nancy. Washington, DC 2021
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.134453
Abstract | PDF (1.6 MB)
Two key outputs of the Gender, Agriculture, and Assets Project, Phase 2 (GAAP2) are the project-level Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI) and the Reach, Benefit, Empower (RBE) framework. An e-survey was used to get a sense of awareness and use of the pro-WEAI and the RBE framework among a target population of potential users (A4NH program stakeholders). More than 30 semi-structured interviews were conducted with funders, implementers, and evaluators, mainly but not exclusively associated with GAAP2, to understand how tools were used at different stages of the program/project cycle, from influencing program objectives and outcomes to program/project design to impact evaluation. The evaluation found that even though the pro-WEAI and the RBE framework are relatively new and their use is not yet widespread, their use in projects is growing and they have contributed to changes in project priorities and in how projects seeking to empower women are designed and evaluated.
Exploring women’s empowerment using a mixed methods approach
Doss, Cheryl; Rubin, Deborah. Washington, DC 2021
Doss, Cheryl; Rubin, Deborah. Washington, DC 2021
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.134478
Abstract | PDF (571.3 KB)
Interest in the meaning and measurement of women’s empowerment has become a stated goal of many programs in international development. This paper explores a collaborative process of studying women’s empowerment in agricultural research for development using both quantitative and qualitative methods. It draws on three bodies of research around empowerment, growing interest in qualitative methods, and measurement research, especially the conceptualization and adaptations of the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index. Employing mixed methods over more than a decade of cooperation among researchers from the Global South and the Global North has challenged the methods and findings of each approach. The work has led to new insights about gender differences in what empowerment means to women and to men, the importance of context, interrelationships among dimensions of empowerment, and the need for greater precision in terms and measures, particularly around decision-making, asset ownership, and time use. Such collaborative research benefits from a long timeframe to build trust and shared understandings across disciplines. The paper concludes with suggestions for the next phase of research.
Did a microfinance ‘plus’ programme empower female farmers and pastoralists and improve intrahousehold equality in rural Ethiopia? Evidence from an impact evaluation using a Project-Women’s Empowerment in Agricultural Index (pro-WEAI) survey tool
Hillesland, Marya; Kaaria, Susan; Mane, Erdgin; Alemu, Mihret; Slavchevska, Vanya. Washington, DC 2021
Hillesland, Marya; Kaaria, Susan; Mane, Erdgin; Alemu, Mihret; Slavchevska, Vanya. Washington, DC 2021
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.134482
Abstract | PDF (1.4 MB)
Using the project-Women’s Empowerment in Agricultural Index (pro-WEAI) survey tool developed by GAAP2, this study aims to estimate the impact of a microfinance ‘plus’ programme on women’s economic empowerment in communities in Oromia and Afar, Ethiopia. The programme incorporates multiple interventions, which are implemented through women-run rural savings and credit cooperatives (RUSACCOs), with the intention of improving beneficiary women’s decision-making over productive assets, control over income, and leadership in rural institutions. A major component of the programme is aimed at rural women’s greater access to credit, but interventions also include agricultural livestock and technology transfers, business training, as well as a community gender awareness component. A difference-in-difference estimator with Inverse Probability Weighting (IPW) is used to evaluate the impact of the programme on women’s empowerment in Oromia. Because of conflict in the area, baseline data collection was delayed and data was collected after some interventions had already begun in Oromia. As such, nearly all beneficiaries already had access to credit through the RUSACCOs at baseline, and both women and men were already empowered in a number of dimensions at baseline. Among households with beneficiaries who continued in good standing between baseline and midline, the programme positively contributed to both women’s and men’s empowerment with regards to respect among household members. It did not lead to additional impacts in terms of overall empowerment and gender parity within the household or across the other pro-WEAI indicators. However, it appears that, by maintaining good standing in the RUSACCOs, female participants were able to maintain high levels of empowerment across the other indicators. A second group of beneficiary women, who either chose to leave the RUSACCO or did not maintain good standing as a member, were also highly empowered across many dimensions at baseline but experienced large average decreases in empowerment across a number of indicators by midline. In Afar, using the midline data only, a single-difference estimator with Inverse Probability Weighting is used to evaluate the impact of the programme. In Afar, the programme had a significant impact on women’s overall empowerment. As we expected, given the nature of the programme, there were significant positive results in terms of access to and decisions on financial services, group membership, and membership in influential groups. There were also positive impacts on control over the use of income, suggesting that the programme contributed to greater control over the use of the output from agricultural activities and control over income from agricultural and non-agricultural activities. On the other hand, the programme also appears to have resulted in reduced empowerment on average with regards to autonomy in income.
Women's empowerment in agriculture: What role for food security in Bangladesh?
Sraboni, Esha; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Ahmed, Akhter. Dhaka, Bangladesh 2021
Sraboni, Esha; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Ahmed, Akhter. Dhaka, Bangladesh 2021
DOI : 10.2499/9789845063715_14
Abstract | PDF (80.3 KB)
While Bangladesh has experienced steady advances in food production through the adoption of agricultural technologies, chronic food insecurity remains a challenge. Similar to other countries in South Asia, there is a strong gender dimension to food insecurity and malnutrition in Bangladesh. In South Asia, the low status of women and gender gaps in health and education contribute to chronic child malnutrition (Smith et al. 2003) and food insecurity (von Grebmer et al. 2009), even as other determinants of food security, such as per capita incomes, have improved. Renewed interest in agriculture as an engine of inclusive growth and specifically in women’s empowerment has highlighted the need to develop indicators for measuring women’s empowerment, to examine its relationship to various food security outcomes, and to monitor the impact of interventions to empower women.
The impacts of rural outmigration on women’s empowerment: Evidence from Nepal, Senegal, and Tajikistan
Slavchevska, Vanya; Hillesland, Marya; Mane, Erdgin; Doss, Cheryl. Washington, DC 2021
Slavchevska, Vanya; Hillesland, Marya; Mane, Erdgin; Doss, Cheryl. Washington, DC 2021
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.134969
Abstract | PDF (723.4 KB)
Using primary survey data collected in Tajikistan, Nepal and Senegal, three countries with high male outmigration rates, this study analyzes the impacts of migration on the empowerment of women who remain in rural areas. The study uses indicators from the Abbreviate Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (A-WEAI) to measure women’s empowerment in five domains (decision-making autonomy around agricultural production, resources, control over income, group membership and workload) and instrumental variable approaches to address the endogeneity between the migration of a family member and women’s empowerment. It finds that male outmigration leads to women’s empowerment in agriculture in some domains and disempowerment in others. In Tajikistan, where women start with low levels of empowerment, women in households with a migrant are more likely to be involved in decisions in productive activities on the household farm, control income, own assets and achieve workload balance than women in non-migrant households. In Nepal and Senegal, women start at higher levels of empowerment and we see fewer differences in their empowerment based on whether they live in a migrant-sending household. The impacts of migration on empowerment depend on the context, whether the household receives remittances or owns land, and women’s position within the household.
Do tradeoffs among dimensions of women’s empowerment and nutrition outcomes exist? Evidence from six countries in Africa and Asia
Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Sproule, Kathryn; Martinez, Elena M.; Malapit, Hazel Jean L.. 2021
Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Sproule, Kathryn; Martinez, Elena M.; Malapit, Hazel Jean L.. 2021
DOI : 10.1016/j.foodpol.2020.102001
Abstract | Link (37 B)
Although women’s empowerment and gender equality are often linked with better maternal and child nutrition outcomes, recent systematic reviews find inconclusive evidence. This paper applies a comparable methodology to data on the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI), an internationally-validated measure based on interviews of women and men within the same household, from six countries in Africa and Asia to identify which dimensions of women’s empowerment are related to household-, woman-, and child-level dietary and nutrition outcomes. We examine relationships between women’s empowerment and household-level dietary diversity; women’s dietary diversity and BMI; and child-related outcomes, controlling for woman, child, and household characteristics. We also test for differential associations of women’s empowerment with nutrition outcomes for boys and girls. We find few significant associations between the aggregate empowerment scores and nutritional outcomes. The women’s empowerment score is positively associated only with child HAZ, while lower intrahousehold inequality is associated with a higher likelihood of exclusive breastfeeding and higher HAZ but with lower BMI. However, analysis of the subdomain indicators finds more significant associations, suggesting that tradeoffs exist among different dimensions of empowerment. Women’s empowerment accounts for a small share of the variance in nutritional outcomes, with household wealth and country-level factors accounting for the largest share of the variation in household and women’s dietary diversity. In contrast, most of the variation in child outcomes comes from child age. Improving nutritional outcomes requires addressing the underlying determinants of poor nutrition in addition to empowering women and improving gender equality.
Migration, labor and women’s empowerment: Evidence from an agricultural value chain in Bangladesh
de Brauw, Alan; Kramer, Berber; Murphy, Mike. 2021
de Brauw, Alan; Kramer, Berber; Murphy, Mike. 2021
DOI : 10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105445
Abstract | Link (37 B)
As a substantial portion of the rural labor force migrates to urban areas, it is commonly assumed that women could take over traditionally male tasks in agricultural production, with potentially empowering outcomes for women. We study how changes in the supply of labor may influence female labor participation and empowerment outcomes. Using a detailed panel dataset on jute producers in the delta region of Bangladesh, we test whether out-migration of household members and perceived labor shortages are associated with the share of household and hired labor performed by women, and women’s empowerment. When a household experiences reduced household or hired labor supply, we observe a relatively larger use of female household labor, but a reduced share of female hired labor. We also find that reduced labor supply is not associated with significant reductions in gender wage gaps, or enhanced women’s empowerment. These findings suggest that given existing gender norms, male and female labor are not perfect substitutes for one another, and as a result, male outmigration is not associated with improved outcomes for women in cash crop production in the short run. Our results demonstrate a need for better understanding of the role of gender in rural labor markets, particularly in contexts of rapid urbanization.
Understanding female and male empowerment in Burkina Faso using the project-level Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI): A longitudinal study
Crookston, Benjamin T.; West, Josh H.; Davis, Siena F.; Hall, P. Cougar; Seymour, Greg; Gray, Bobbi L.. 2021
Crookston, Benjamin T.; West, Josh H.; Davis, Siena F.; Hall, P. Cougar; Seymour, Greg; Gray, Bobbi L.. 2021
DOI : 10.1186/s12905-021-01371-9
Abstract | Link (37 B)
Background: Achieving gender equality and women’s empowerment is a major global priority. The purpose of this study was to determine whether the Building the Resilience of Vulnerable Communities in Burkina Faso (BRB) project, an agricultural development program, improved women’s empowerment, as measured by the project-level Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI).
Methods: This study used a longitudinal, quasi-experimental study design. Participants included both treatment and comparison groups (total N = 751) comprising female members of savings groups and their husbands or main male household member in Burkina Faso. All participants completed the pro-WEAI questionnaire at both baseline and endline. The treatment group received a comprehensive intervention package consisting of agriculture loans and services, microenterprise loans, and education, nutrition education, and women’s empowerment programs including gender-based discussions designed to facilitate personalized changes in gender relations.
Results: The proportion of the treatment group achieving empowerment did not change from baseline for women, but improved substantially for men. Women from the comparison group saw an increase in empowerment at endline while men saw a substantial decrease. Gender parity was high for women in both groups at baseline and increased slightly at endline. Women were more likely to have adequate empowerment in input in productive decisions, group membership, and membership in influential groups than men while men were more likely to have adequate empowerment in attitudes about domestic violence, control over use of income, and work balance than women. Participants from the treatment group reported an increase in the average number of empowerment indicators that they were adequate in while the comparison group saw a decrease in average adequacy over time (p = 0.002) after controlling for age, sex, and level of education.
Conclusion: Despite starting at an empowerment disadvantage, the treatment group experienced gains in individual indicators of empowerment while the comparison group men and women experienced mixed results, with the women gaining, and the men losing empowerment. This research suggests that the BRB intervention may have provided some protection for the treatment group when they faced an economic down-turn prior to the endline, indicative of household resilience. Future research should consider and strengthen relationships between resilience and empowerment.
Methods: This study used a longitudinal, quasi-experimental study design. Participants included both treatment and comparison groups (total N = 751) comprising female members of savings groups and their husbands or main male household member in Burkina Faso. All participants completed the pro-WEAI questionnaire at both baseline and endline. The treatment group received a comprehensive intervention package consisting of agriculture loans and services, microenterprise loans, and education, nutrition education, and women’s empowerment programs including gender-based discussions designed to facilitate personalized changes in gender relations.
Results: The proportion of the treatment group achieving empowerment did not change from baseline for women, but improved substantially for men. Women from the comparison group saw an increase in empowerment at endline while men saw a substantial decrease. Gender parity was high for women in both groups at baseline and increased slightly at endline. Women were more likely to have adequate empowerment in input in productive decisions, group membership, and membership in influential groups than men while men were more likely to have adequate empowerment in attitudes about domestic violence, control over use of income, and work balance than women. Participants from the treatment group reported an increase in the average number of empowerment indicators that they were adequate in while the comparison group saw a decrease in average adequacy over time (p = 0.002) after controlling for age, sex, and level of education.
Conclusion: Despite starting at an empowerment disadvantage, the treatment group experienced gains in individual indicators of empowerment while the comparison group men and women experienced mixed results, with the women gaining, and the men losing empowerment. This research suggests that the BRB intervention may have provided some protection for the treatment group when they faced an economic down-turn prior to the endline, indicative of household resilience. Future research should consider and strengthen relationships between resilience and empowerment.
Designing for empowerment impact in agricultural development projects: Experimental evidence from the Agriculture, Nutrition, and Gender Linkages (ANGeL) project in Bangladesh
Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Ahmed, Akhter; Hoddinott, John F.; Pereira, Audrey; Roy, Shalini. 2021
Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Ahmed, Akhter; Hoddinott, John F.; Pereira, Audrey; Roy, Shalini. 2021
DOI : 10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105622
Abstract | Link (37 B)
The importance of women’s roles for nutrition-sensitive agricultural projects is increasingly recognized, yet little is known about whether such projects improve women’s empowerment and gender equality. We study the Agriculture, Nutrition, and Gender Linkages (ANGeL) pilot project, which was implemented as a cluster-randomized controlled trial by the Government of Bangladesh. The project’s treatment arms included agricultural training, nutrition behavior change communication (BCC), and gender sensitization trainings delivered to husbands and wives together – with these components combined additively, such that the impact of gender sensitization could be distinguished from that of agriculture and nutrition trainings. Empowerment was measured using the internationally-validated project-level Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI), and attitudes regarding gender roles were elicited from both men and women, to explore potentially gender-transformative impacts. Our study finds that ANGeL increased both women’s and men’s empowerment, raised the prevalence of households achieving gender parity, and led to small improvements in the gender attitudes of both women and men. We find significant increases in women’s empowerment scores and empowerment status from all treatment arms but with no significant differences across these. We find no evidence of unintended impacts on workloads and inconclusive evidence around impacts on intimate partner violence. Our results also suggest some potential benefits of bundling nutrition and gender components with an agricultural development intervention; however, many of these benefits seem to be driven by bundling nutrition with agriculture. While we cannot assess the extent to which including men and women within the same treatment arms contributed to our results, it is plausible that the positive impacts of all treatment arms on women’s empowerment outcomes may have arisen from implementation modalities that provided information to both husbands and wives when they were together. The role of engaging men and women jointly in interventions is a promising area for future research.
Women’s empowerment and gender equality in agricultural value chains: Evidence from four countries in Asia and Africa
Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Heckert, Jessica; Faas, Simone; Ramani, Gayathri V.; Raghunathan, Kalyani; Malapit, Hazel J.; The pro-WEAI for Market Inclusion Study Team. 2021
Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Heckert, Jessica; Faas, Simone; Ramani, Gayathri V.; Raghunathan, Kalyani; Malapit, Hazel J.; The pro-WEAI for Market Inclusion Study Team. 2021
DOI : 10.1007/s12571-021-01193-5
Abstract | Link (37 B)
Women play important roles at different nodes of both agricultural and off-farm value chains, but in many countries their contributions are either underestimated or limited by prevailing societal norms or gender-specific barriers. We use primary data collected in Asia (Bangladesh, Philippines) and Africa (Benin, Malawi) to examine the relationships between women’s empowerment, gender equality, and participation in a variety of local agricultural value chains that comprise the food system. We find that the value chain and the specific node of engagement matter, as do other individual and household characteristics, but in different ways depending on country context. Entrepreneurship—often engaged in by wealthier households with greater ability to take risks—is not necessarily empowering for women; nor is household wealth, as proxied by their asset ownership. Increased involvement in the market is not necessarily correlated with greater gender equality. Education is positively correlated with higher empowerment of both men and women, but the strength of this association varies. Training and extension services are generally positively associated with empowerment but could also exacerbate the inequality in empowerment between men and women in the same household. All in all, culture and context determine whether participation in value chains—and which node of the value chain—is empowering. In designing food systems interventions, care should be taken to consider the social and cultural contexts in which these food systems operate, so that interventions do not exacerbate existing gender inequalities.
Signs of change: Evidence on women’s time use, identity, and subjective well-being in rural Bangladesh
Seymour, Greg; Floro, Maria S.. 2021
Seymour, Greg; Floro, Maria S.. 2021
DOI : 10.19268/JGAFS.612021.1
Abstract | Link (37 B)
We develop an analytical framework based on the work of Akerlof and Kranton (2000) and use it to examine how identity – proxied by agreement with statements reflecting patriarchal notions of gender roles – affects the trade-off between the time women spend on household and care work and their subjective well-being. Analyzing household survey data from rural Bangladesh, we find that longer hours spent on household work are associated with lower levels of subjective well-being among women who hold egalitarian notions of gender roles, while the reverse is true for women who hold patriarchal notions of gender roles. Importantly, this pattern holds only when women strongly identify with patriarchal or egalitarian notions of gender roles. These findings provide insights into how social expectations govern gender roles and, specifically, how gender inequalities persist, at least in part, due to men’s and women’s internalization of traditional gender norms.
Assessing women’s empowerment initiatives collaboratively can create positive change
Elias, Marlène; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela. Nairobi, Kenya 2021
Elias, Marlène; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela. Nairobi, Kenya 2021
Abstract | Link (37 B)
Empowerment (https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7660.00125) is the process by which people gain the ability to make strategic choices in their lives and to act upon them, when they previously could not. It is a complex, intangible, political, context-specic and multidimensional concept that entails changes at multiple (individual, relational, environmental) levels. Even if assessments of empowerment are imperfect, they can contribute to stronger and more accountable programs and policies. Qualitative and quantitative methods can both yield valuable information for assessing empowerment; combining them can yield comprehensive information that cannot be acquired by using any method alone. Understanding empowerment requires research to embrace and address complexity, to unearth the structural barriers that cause inequality. Our review of 15 tools for measuring women’s empowerment shows that all tools explore agency, but most neglect structural causes of disempowerment. Future research on women’s empowerment should seek to better understand the links between empowerment and agriculture, decision-making processes and situations where positive changes in some dimensions of women’s empowerment can cause setbacks in others.
Instructional guide on the abbreviated Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (A-WEAI)
Malapit, Hazel J.; Kovarik, Chiara; Sproule, Kathryn; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. Washington, D.C. 2020
Malapit, Hazel J.; Kovarik, Chiara; Sproule, Kathryn; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. Washington, D.C. 2020
Abstract | PDF (2 MB)
The Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) is a survey-based index designed to measure the empowerment, agency, and inclusion of women in the agricultural sector. The WEAI was initially developed in 2012 as a tool to reflect changes in women’s empowerment that may result from the US government’s Feed the Future Initiative, which commissioned the development of the WEAI. However, the WEAI has also been used extensively since 2012 by a variety of organizations to assess the state of empowerment and gender parity in agriculture, to identify key areas in which empowerment needs to be strengthened, and to track progress over time.
Women’s empowerment in agriculture and nutritional outcomes: Evidence from six countries in Africa and Asia
Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Sproule, Kathryn; Martinez, Elena M.; Malapit, Hazel J.. Washington, DC 2020
Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Sproule, Kathryn; Martinez, Elena M.; Malapit, Hazel J.. Washington, DC 2020
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.133732
Abstract | PDF (2 MB)
Although women’s empowerment and gender equality are associated with better maternal and child nutrition outcomes, recent systematic reviews find inconclusive evidence. This paper applies a comparable methodology to data on the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI), a recent internationally-validated measure based on interviews of women and men within the same household, from six countries in Africa and Asia to identify which dimensions of women’s empowerment are related to household-, women-, and child-level dietary and nutrition outcomes. We examine the relationship between women’s empowerment and household-level food security and dietary diversity; women’s dietary diversity and BMI; and child-related outcomes, controlling for woman, child, and household characteristics. We also test whether women’s empowerment has differential associations for boys and girls. We do not find consistent associations between dimensions of empowerment and food security and nutrition outcomes across countries, but some patterns emerge. Overall empowerment scores are more strongly associated with nutritional outcomes in the South Asian countries in our sample compared to the African ones. Where significant, greater intrahousehold gender equality is associated with better nutritional outcomes. However, different domains have different associations with nutritional outcomes, suggesting that tradeoffs exist: higher workloads are associated with more diverse diets but lower women’s BMI and child anthropometric outcomes. Identifying the overlap between the top contributors to disempowerment and those most strongly related to nutrition outcomes can inform the design and implementation of nutrition-sensitive agricultural programs.
Learning together: Experimental evidence on the impact of group-based nutrition interventions in rural Bihar
Raghunathan, Kalyani; Kumar, Neha; Gupta, Shivani; Chauhan, Tarana; Kathuria, Ashi Kohli; Menon, Purnima. Washington, DC 2020
Raghunathan, Kalyani; Kumar, Neha; Gupta, Shivani; Chauhan, Tarana; Kathuria, Ashi Kohli; Menon, Purnima. Washington, DC 2020
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.133769
Abstract | PDF (1 MB)
Despite improvements over the last decade or more, India still accounts for a large proportion of the global prevalence of maternal and child undernutrition. We use a cluster-randomized controlled design and two waves of panel data on more than 2000 households from Bihar to analyse the impact on diet quality and anthropometry of a health and nutrition intervention delivered through an at-scale women’s self-help group (SHGs) platform. We find that the intervention had small but significant impacts on women and children’s dietary diversity, with the main impacts coming from an increase in the consumption of fruits and vegetables and dairy, however, it had no impact on women’s body mass index. We identify several potential pathways to impact. To the extent that SHGs can effect broad-based social change, their current reach to millions of women makes them a powerful platform for accelerating improvements in maternal and child health and nutrition outcomes.
Project-level Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture: Results from cognitive testing in Myanmar
Lambrecht, Isabel; Sproule, Katie; Synt, Nang Lun Kham; Ei Win, Hnin; Win, Khin Zin. Washington, DC 2020
Lambrecht, Isabel; Sproule, Katie; Synt, Nang Lun Kham; Ei Win, Hnin; Win, Khin Zin. Washington, DC 2020
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.133796
Abstract | PDF (565.6 KB)
When designing and evaluating policies and projects for women’s empowerment, appropriate indicators are needed. This paper reports on the lessons learned from two rounds of pretesting and cognitive testing of the project-level Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI) in a total of five States/Regions in Myanmar. We assess if respondents understand the modules as intended and which questions require modification based on the cultural context. We find that the questions also present in the abbreviated WEAI are generally well understood, particularly on instrumental and group agency. The challenge to respond to hypothetical and abstract questions did become apparent in the domains representing intrinsic agency, and was problematic for questions on autonomy and self-efficacy. Also, the internationally validated questions on attitudes towards domestic violence were too abstract, and responses depend on the scenario envisioned. We also suggest including an adapted version of the module on speaking up in public, to reinforce the domain on collective agency. Our findings provide an encouraging message to those aspiring to use pro-WEAI, but emphasize the need for continued attention for context-specific adjustments and critical testing of even those instruments that are widely used and deemed validated.
Gender and food security in Honduras
Allen, Summer L.; Delgado, Luciana. Washington, DC 2020
Allen, Summer L.; Delgado, Luciana. Washington, DC 2020
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.133808
Abstract | PDF (1 MB)
This study, supported by the Netherlands Development Organisation (SNV), obtained information on a range of topics associated with food security and nutrition, gender, and water access in selected villages of Honduras. The data collection prioritized a set of communities of interest to the civil society organizations that are part of the Voice for Change Program in Honduras. The data collection, done in 2018, covered 647 households across the departments of Choluteca, Lempira, and Ocotepeque. Most households surveyed face high levels of food insecurity. Only 26% of the women between 12 and 49 years are receiving the minimum dietary diversity. Access to water and sanitation is also limited with 30% of the households sourcing their water from a well or river and 51% not treating the water before drinking it. According to the Abbreviated Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (A-WEAI) only 34% of women sampled are considered empowered. The survey results indicate that the biggest hurdles to women’s empowerment are the amount of time spent working and limited decision-making power regarding accessing credit and productive activities.
Methods for measuring women's empowerment
Doss, Cheryl; Malapit, Hazel J.; Comstock, Andrew. Washington, DC 2020
Doss, Cheryl; Malapit, Hazel J.; Comstock, Andrew. Washington, DC 2020
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.134044
Abstract | PDF (575.2 KB)
Women’s empowerment is of paramount importance for multiple development goals. However, it is much easier to discuss the importance of empowerment than it is to define the methods and tools needed to measure it. This requires research focused on the conceptual understanding of how we should measure women’s empowerment, in a variety of facets, and the creation of tools and methods for doing so.
Género y seguridad alimentaria en Honduras
Allen, Summer L.; Delgado, Luciana. Washington, DC 2020
Allen, Summer L.; Delgado, Luciana. Washington, DC 2020
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.134145
Abstract | PDF (1.1 MB)
El presente estudio, con el respaldo del Servicio Holandés de Cooperación al Desarrollo (SNV), obtuvo información sobre una serie de temas relativos a la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición, el género y el acceso al agua en ciertos caseríos específicos de Honduras. La recolección de datos priorizó un grupo de comunidades de interés para las organizaciones de la sociedad civil que forman parte del programa Voz para el Cambio en Honduras. Dicha recolección de datos, efectuada en 2018, abarcó 647 hogares de los departamentos de Choluteca, Lempira y Ocotepeque. La mayoría de los hogares encuestados enfrentan graves niveles de inseguridad alimentaria. Solo el 26 % de las mujeres entre 12 y 49 años cuentan con una diversidad alimentaria mínima. Además, el acceso al agua y el saneamiento es limitado, ya que el 30 % de los hogares obtienen agua de un pozo o río y el 50 % no la trata antes de beberla. Según el Índice Abreviado de Empoderamiento de la Mujer en la Agricultura (A-WEAI), solo el 34 % de las mujeres encuestadas se consideran empoderadas. Los resultados de la encuesta indican que los mayores obstáculos al empoderamiento de la mujer son la cantidad de tiempo que pasan trabajando y el poco poder de decisión que tienen en cuanto al acceso al crédito y las actividades productivas.
Intersectionality and addressing equity in agriculture, nutrition, and health
Malapit, Hazel J.; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Hodur, Janet. Washington, DC 2020
Malapit, Hazel J.; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Hodur, Janet. Washington, DC 2020
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.134153
Abstract | PDF (476.2 KB)
The UN Sustainable Development Goals were established to build a better and more sustainable future for all. Progress toward development objectives has been uneven over time, and the disadvantaged tend to suffer disproportionately, particularly in times of severe shocks or crises like the COVID-19 global pandemic. The inclusion of the phrase “for all” is a good reminder that meeting our global goals will require paying particular attention to equity and ensuring no one is left behind. To consider equity, one must acknowledge that not everyone starts from the same set of circumstances, and assess how unfair, unjust, and exclusionary social and political processes have created that situation. Addressing inequity involves being mindful of those processes and removing barriers that prevent people from participating fully in decisions that determine how goods, opportunities, or resources are distributed. It is subtly, yet importantly, different from equality, which involves ensuring those goods, opportunities, or resources are divided equally among a group. In order to work toward equality, one must ensure equity has been achieved.
Women’s empowerment, extended families and male migration in Nepal: Insights from mixed methods analysis
Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Pereira, Audrey; Pradhan, Rajendra; Doss, Cheryl. Washington, DC 2020
Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Pereira, Audrey; Pradhan, Rajendra; Doss, Cheryl. Washington, DC 2020
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.134159
Abstract | PDF (820.7 KB)
Women’s empowerment is dynamic across the life course, affected not only by age but also by women’s social position within the household. In Nepal, high rates of male outmigration have further compounded household dynamics, although the impact on women’s empowerment is not clear. We use qualitative and quantitative data from Nepal to explore the relationship between women’s social location in the household, caste/ethnicity, husband’s migration status, and women’s empowerment. The study first examines the factors affecting overall empowerment as measured by the Abbreviated Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (A-WEAI), followed by more detailed qualitative and quantitative analysis of how each factor affects individual domains including asset ownership, access to and decisions on credit, control over use of income, group membership, input in productive decisions, and work load. We find that women’s empowerment is strongly associated with caste/ethnic identity and position in the household, but this dynamic interacts with husband’s migration status. Despite patriarchal norms of high caste groups, high caste women are more empowered than others, reflecting the disempowering effects of poverty and social exclusion for low caste and ethnic groups. Daughters-in-law in joint households are more likely to be empowered when their husbands are residents in the household and disempowered when their husbands are migrants, while wives in nuclear households are more likely to be empowered when their husbands are migrants. While qualitative findings indicate daughters-in-law are disempowered compared to their mothers-in-law, especially in time use, the quantitative results do not show significant differences, suggesting that we need to move toward an understanding of agency over time and intensity of work, rather than simply hours worked. Identifying the factors that contribute to disempowerment of women of different social positions has important implications for the design of interventions and programs that seek to improve women’s empowerment.
Pro-WEAI for market inclusion
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Washington, DC 2020
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Washington, DC 2020
Abstract | PDF (2.4 MB)
Many development agencies are designing and implementing value chain interventions that aim to reach, benefit, and empower rural women. Monitoring and evaluating the success of these value chain interventions requires tools to identify the constraints women and men face and to track empowerment across multiple nodes of the value chain. The project-level Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index for market inclusion (pro-WEAI+MI) includes the core pro-WEAI module plus new complementary indicators to investigate barriers to market access and inclusion for different value chain actors. The survey also offers several optional indicators, including access to reliable sanitation and sexual hostility in the working environment, to assess the empowerment environment. These additions and enhancements increase pro-WEAI’s ability to measure and contextualize empowerment and inclusion across value chains.
Le développement de l’Indice d’Autonomisation des Femmes dans l’Agriculture au niveau projet pour les filières agro-alimentaires (pro-WEAI+MI): Une application au Bénin du programme d’Education et de Formation Technique et Professionnelle Agricole pour les Femmes (EFTPA/F)
Heckert, Jessica; Malapit, Hazel J.; Pereira, Audrey; Seymour, Greg; Eissler, Sarah; Diatta, Ampa Dogui; Faas, Simone; Rubin, Deborah; Nordehn, Caitlin. Washington, DC 2020
Heckert, Jessica; Malapit, Hazel J.; Pereira, Audrey; Seymour, Greg; Eissler, Sarah; Diatta, Ampa Dogui; Faas, Simone; Rubin, Deborah; Nordehn, Caitlin. Washington, DC 2020
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.134966
Abstract | PDF (478.4 KB)
Cette étude comprend les résultats de la collaboration entre l’Institut International de Recherche sur les Politiques Alimentaires (IFPRI) et l’Agence d’exécution de l’Union Africaine du Nouveau Partenariat pour le Développement de l'Afrique (AUDA-NEPAD) avec le soutien du Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). Les objectifs communs du projet étaient, en premier lieu, de développer l’Indice d’Autonomisation des Femmes dans l’Agriculture au Niveau Projet pour les Filières Agro-alimentaires (pro-WEAI+MI) 1 pour mesurer les changements dans l’autonomisation des femmes participantes et d’adapter l’outil au contexte africain (projet au Malawi), et, ensuite, d’évaluer le programme d’EFTPA pour les femmes au Bénin.
Cognitive interviewing to improve women's empowerment questions in surveys: Application to the health and nutrition and intrahousehold relationships modules for the project‐level Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index
Hannan, Anika; Heckert, Jessica; James-Hawkins, Laurie; Yount, Kathryn M.. 2020
Hannan, Anika; Heckert, Jessica; James-Hawkins, Laurie; Yount, Kathryn M.. 2020
DOI : 10.1111/mcn.12871
Abstract | Link (37 B)
In 2015, the United Nations adopted the Sustainable Development Goals, which include fostering gender equality and women's empowerment and ending hunger and malnutrition. To monitor progress and evaluate programmes that aim to achieve these goals, survey instruments are needed that can accurately assess related indicators. The project‐level Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro‐WEAI) is being developed to address the need for an instrument that is sensitive to changes in empowerment over the duration of an intervention. The pro‐WEAI includes new modules with previously untested survey questions, including a health and nutrition module (focused on women's agency in this area) and an intrahousehold relationships module. This study uses cognitive interviewing to identify how new survey questions might be misinterpreted and to understand what experiences women are referencing when they respond to these questions. This was undertaken with the goal of informing revision to the modules. The study was conducted in Bangladesh with women from nuclear, extended, and migrant‐sending households and from two regions of the country to identify difficulties with interpretation and response formulation across these groups. Findings revealed that questions were generally understood, but participants occasionally responded to the wrong part of the question, did not understand key phrases, or were uncomfortable with questions. The findings also suggested ways to revise the modules and strengthen the pro‐WEAI. The revised pro‐WEAI health and nutrition and intrahousehold relationships modules will advance the ability to measure changes in these domains and their relationship with the health and nutritional status of women and their children.
Empowerment in agricultural value chains: Mixed methods evidence from the Philippines
Malapit, Hazel J.; Ragasa, Catherine; Martinez, Elena M.; Rubin, Deborah; Seymour, Greg; Quisumbing, Agnes. 2020
Malapit, Hazel J.; Ragasa, Catherine; Martinez, Elena M.; Rubin, Deborah; Seymour, Greg; Quisumbing, Agnes. 2020
DOI : 10.1016/j.jrurstud.2020.04.003
Abstract | Link (37 B)
Women's participation and empowerment in value chains are goals of many development organizations, but there has been limited systematic, rigorous research to track these goals between and within value chains (VCs). We adapt the survey-based project-level Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI) to measure women's and men's empowerment in the abaca, coconut, seaweed, and swine VCs in the Philippines and to investigate the correlates of empowerment. Results show that most women and men in all four VCs are disempowered, but unlike in many other countries, Filipino women in this sample are generally as empowered as men. Pro-WEAI results suggest that respect within the household and attitudes about gender-based violence (GBV) are the largest sources of disempowerment for both women and men, followed by control over use of income and autonomy in income-related decisions. Excessive workload and lack of group membership are other important sources of disempowerment, with some variation across VCs and nodes along VCs. Across all four VCs, access to community programs is associated with higher women's empowerment, and access to extension services and education are associated with higher men's empowerment. Our results show that, despite the relatively small gender gaps in the Philippines, persistent gender stereotypes influence men's and women's empowerment and VC participation.
Measuring time use in developing country agriculture: Evidence from Bangladesh and Uganda
Seymour, Gregory; Malapit, Hazel J.; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. 2020
Seymour, Gregory; Malapit, Hazel J.; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. 2020
DOI : 10.1080/13545701.2020.1749867
Abstract | Link (37 B)
This paper discusses the challenges associated with implementing time-use surveys among agricultural households in developing countries and offers advice on best practices for two common measurement methods: stylized questions and time diaries. Using data from Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) surveys in Bangladesh and Uganda, it finds that stylized questions do not always produce shorter interviews compared to time diaries, and recall accuracy may depend on the regularity and saliency of the activity and enumerator abilities. The paper suggests that combining promising methodological innovations from other disciplines with mainstream time-use data collection methods would allow capture of both the quantity and quality of time and provide richer insights into gendered time-use patterns. Broadening the scope of time-use research to other aspects of well-being can help identify how time constraints contribute to gender inequality and inform the design of policies and interventions to relieve those constraints.
The Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index
Martinez, Elena M.; Myers, Emily; Pereira, Audrey. 2020
Martinez, Elena M.; Myers, Emily; Pereira, Audrey. 2020
Women’s empowerment and farmland allocations in Bangladesh: Evidence of a possible pathway to crop diversification
De Pinto, Alessandro; Seymour, Gregory; Bryan, Elizabeth; Bhandari, Prapti. 2020
De Pinto, Alessandro; Seymour, Gregory; Bryan, Elizabeth; Bhandari, Prapti. 2020
DOI : 10.1007/s10584-020-02925-w
Abstract | Link (37 B)
Climate change will likely affect several of the dimensions that determine people’s food security status in Bangladesh, from crop production to the availability and accessibility of food products. Crop diversification is a form of adaptation to climate change that reduces exposure to climate-related risks and has also been shown to increase diet diversity, reduce micronutrient deficiencies, and positively affect agro-ecological systems. Despite these benefits, the level of crop diversification in Bangladesh remains extremely low, requiring an examination of the factors that support uptake of this practice. This paper explores whether women’s empowerment, measured using the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI), leads to increased diversification in the use of farmland. Our results reveal that some aspects of women’s empowerment in agriculture, but not all, lead to more diversification and to a transition from cereal production to other crops like vegetables and fruits. These findings suggest a possible pathway for gender-sensitive interventions that promote crop diversity as a risk management tool and as a way to improve the availability of nutritious crops.
Women’s empowerment in agriculture: Lessons from qualitative research
Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Rubin, Deborah; Elias, Marlène; Mulema, Annet Abenakyo; Myers, Emily. Washington, DC 2019
Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Rubin, Deborah; Elias, Marlène; Mulema, Annet Abenakyo; Myers, Emily. Washington, DC 2019
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.133060
Abstract | PDF (770.5 KB)
There is growing recognition of the importance of women’s empowerment in its own right and for a range of development outcomes, but less understanding of what empowerment means to rural women and men. The challenge of measuring empowerment, particularly across cultures and contexts, is also garnering attention. This paper synthesizes qualitative research conducted conjointly with quantitative surveys, working with eight agricultural development projects in eight countries, to develop a project-level Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI). The qualitative research sought to identify emic meanings of “empowerment,” validate the domains and indicators of the quantitative index, provide greater understanding of the context of each project and of strategies for facilitating empowerment, and test a methodology for integrating emic perspectives of empowerment with standardized etic measures that allow for comparability across contexts.
Development of the project-level Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI)
Malapit, Hazel J.; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Seymour, Gregory; Martinez, Elena M.; Heckert, Jessica; Rubin, Deborah; Vaz, Ana; Yount, Kathryn M.. Washington, DC 2019
Malapit, Hazel J.; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Seymour, Gregory; Martinez, Elena M.; Heckert, Jessica; Rubin, Deborah; Vaz, Ana; Yount, Kathryn M.. Washington, DC 2019
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.133061
Abstract | PDF (904.3 KB)
In this paper, the authors describe the adaptation and validation of a project-level WEAI (or pro-WEAI) that agricultural development projects can use to identify key areas of women’s (and men’s) disempowerment, design appropriate strategies to address identified deficiencies, and monitor project outcomes related to women’s empowerment. The 12 pro-WEAI indicators are mapped to three domains: intrinsic agency (power within), instrumental agency (power to), and collective agency (power with). A gender parity index compares the empowerment scores of men and women in the same household. The authors describe the development of pro-WEAI, including: (1) pro-WEAI’s distinctiveness from other versions of the WEAI; (2) the process of piloting pro-WEAI in 13 agricultural development projects during the Gender, Agriculture, and Assets Project, phase 2 (GAAP2); (3) analysis of quantitative data from the GAAP2 projects, including intrahousehold patterns of empowerment; and (4) a summary of the findings from the qualitative work exploring concepts of women’s empowerment in the project sites. The paper concludes with a discussion of lessons learned from pro-WEAI and possibilities for further development of empowerment metrics.
Measurement properties of the Project-Level Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index
Yount, Kathryn M.; Cheong, Yuk Fai; Maxwell, Lauren; Heckert, Jessica; Martinez, Elena M.; Seymour, Gregory. Washington, DC 2019
Yount, Kathryn M.; Cheong, Yuk Fai; Maxwell, Lauren; Heckert, Jessica; Martinez, Elena M.; Seymour, Gregory. Washington, DC 2019
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.133077
Abstract | PDF (1.7 MB)
Given the need for valid measures of women’s empowerment to monitor SDG5 and design advantages of pro-WEAI, an assessment of its measurement properties is warranted. This paper has three aims: 1) to assess in two GAAP2 projects the measurement properties of survey question (item) sets used to compute pro-WEAI indicators, 2) to offer guidance, based on study findings, for questionnaire revisions to shorten the full pro-WEAI to improve it as a measure for women’s empowerment in agricultural development programs, and 3) to make a call for a validated ‘short form’1 version of pro-WEAI and improved measures of women’s collective agency.
Women’s empowerment and child nutrition in polygynous households of Northern Ghana
Bourdier, Tomoé. Washington, DC 2019
Bourdier, Tomoé. Washington, DC 2019
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.133143
Abstract | PDF (855.7 KB)
Weather shocks and other shocks affecting the economy of farm households often trigger a cascade of coping mechanisms, from reducing food consumption to selling assets, with potentially lasting consequences on child development. In polygynous households (in which a man is married to several women), the factors that may aggravate or mitigate the impacts of such adverse events are still poorly understood. In particular, little is known about the complex mechanisms through which women’s empowerment may affect the allocation of household resources in the presence of more than one female decision-maker. Where polygyny is associated with discriminatory social norms, co-wives may have limited bargaining power, which may translate into poorer outcomes for their children. While competition between co-wives may generate inefficiencies in the allocation of household resources, cooperation in the domains of agricultural production or domestic labor may lead to economies of scale and facilitate informal risk sharing. The rank of each co-wife may also have a strong influence on the welfare of her own children, relative to other children. Using the Feed the Future Ghana Population Survey data, I investigate the relationship between polygyny and children’s nutrition, and how it may be mediated through women’s bargaining power. Using the age of each co-wife as a proxy for rank, I also study how the senior-wife status of a mother may influence her children’s nutrition outcomes.
Empowerment in agricultural value chains: Mixed methods evidence from the Philippines
Malapit, Hazel J.; Ragasa, Catherine; Martinez, Elena M.; Rubin, Deborah; Seymour, Gregory; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. Washington, DC 2019
Malapit, Hazel J.; Ragasa, Catherine; Martinez, Elena M.; Rubin, Deborah; Seymour, Gregory; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. Washington, DC 2019
DOI : 10.2499/p15738coll2.133456
Abstract | PDF (2 MB)
Women’s participation and empowerment in value chains are goals that concern many development organizations, but there has been limited systematic, rigorous research to track these goals between and within value chains (VCs). We use the survey-based project-level Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI) to measure women’s and men’s empowerment in the abaca, coconut, seaweed, and swine VCs in the Philippines. Results show that most women and men in all four VCs are disempowered, but unlike in many other countries, Filipino women in this sample are generally as empowered as men. Pro-WEAI results suggest that respect within the household and attitudes about gender-based violence (GBV) are the largest sources of disempowerment for both women and men, followed by control over use of income and autonomy in income-related decisions. Excessive workload and lack of group membership are other important sources of disempowerment, with some variation across VCs and nodes along VCs. Across all four VCs, access to community programs is associated with higher women’s empowerment, and access to extension services and education are associated with higher men’s empowerment. Our results show that, despite the egalitarian gender norms in the Philippines, persistent gender stereotypes influence men’s and women’s empowerment and VC participation.
The role of empowerment in agricultural production: evidence from rural households in Niger
Wouterse, Fleur Stephanie. 2019
Wouterse, Fleur Stephanie. 2019
DOI : 10.1080/00220388.2017.1408797
Household and child nutrition outcomes among the time and income poor in rural Bangladesh
Seymour, Gregory; Masuda, Yuta J.; Williams, Jason; Schneider, Kate. 2019
Seymour, Gregory; Masuda, Yuta J.; Williams, Jason; Schneider, Kate. 2019
DOI : 10.1016/j.gfs.2019.01.004
Development of the project-level Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI)
Malapit, Hazel J.; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Seymour, Gregory; Martinez, Elena M.; Heckert, Jessica; Rubin, Deborah; Vaz, Ana; Yount, Kathryn M.; Gender Agriculture Assets Project Phase 2 (GAAP2) Study Team. 2019
Malapit, Hazel J.; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Seymour, Gregory; Martinez, Elena M.; Heckert, Jessica; Rubin, Deborah; Vaz, Ana; Yount, Kathryn M.; Gender Agriculture Assets Project Phase 2 (GAAP2) Study Team. 2019
DOI : 10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.06.018
Abstract | Link
With growing commitment to women’s empowerment by agricultural development agencies, sound methods and indicators to measure women’s empowerment are needed to learn which types of projects or project-implementation strategies do and do not work to empower women. The Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI), which has been widely used, requires adaptation to meet the need for monitoring projects and assessing their impacts. In this paper, the authors describe the adaptation and validation of a project-level WEAI (or pro-WEAI) that agricultural development projects can use to identify key areas of women’s (and men’s) disempowerment, design appropriate strategies to address identified deficiencies, and monitor project outcomes related to women’s empowerment.
Measurement properties of the project-level Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index
Yount, Kathryn M.; Cheong, Yuk Fai; Maxwell, Lauren; Heckert, Jessica; Martinez, Elena M.; Seymour, Gregory. 2019
Yount, Kathryn M.; Cheong, Yuk Fai; Maxwell, Lauren; Heckert, Jessica; Martinez, Elena M.; Seymour, Gregory. 2019
DOI : 10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.104639
Abstract | Link (37 B)
Women’s empowerment is a process that includes increases in intrinsic agency (power within); instrumental agency (power to); and collective agency (power with). We used baseline data from two studies—Targeting and Realigning Agriculture for Improved Nutrition (TRAIN) in Bangladesh and Building Resilience in Burkina Faso (BRB)—to assess the measurement properties of survey questions operationalizing selected dimensions of intrinsic, instrumental, and collective agency in the project-level Women’s Empowerment in Agricultural Index (pro-WEAI). We applied unidimensional item-response models to question (item) sets to assess their measurement properties, and when possible, their cross-context measurement equivalence—a requirement of measures designed for cross-group comparisons. For intrinsic agency in the right to bodily integrity, measured with five attitudinal questions about intimate partner violence (IPV) against women, model assumptions of unidimensionality and local independence were met. Four items showed good model fit and measurement equivalence across TRAIN and BRB. For item sets designed to capture autonomy in income, intrinsic agency in livelihoods activities, and instrumental agency in: livelihoods activities, the sale or use of outputs, the use of income, and borrowing from financial services, model assumptions were not met, model fit was poor, and items generally were weakly related to the latent (unobserved) agency construct. For intrinsic and instrumental agency in livelihoods activities and for instrumental agency in the sale or use of outputs and in the use of income, items sets had similar precision along the latent-agency continuum, suggesting that similar item sets could be dropped without a loss of precision. IRT models for collective agency were not estimable because of low reported presence and membership in community groups. This analysis demonstrates the use of IRT methods to assess the measurement properties of item sets in pro-WEAI, and empowerment scales generally. Findings suggest that a shorter version of pro-WEAI can be developed that will improve its measurement properties. We recommend revisions to the pro-WEAI questionnaire and call for new measures of women’s collective agency.
Gender effects of agricultural cropping work and nutrition status in Tanzania
Komatsu, Hitomi; Malapit, Hazel J.; Balagamwala, Mysbah. 2019
Komatsu, Hitomi; Malapit, Hazel J.; Balagamwala, Mysbah. 2019
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0222090
Abstract | Link (37 B)
Although agriculture is an important source of food and income for food expenditures, women’s involvement in the agricultural cropping production process could increase their work load and reduce their BMI. Using three waves of the Tanzania National Panel Survey, we investigate the extent to which time spent in agricultural crop production affects women and men’s nutritional status among non-overweight individuals (age 20–65). We also test whether the impact of agricultural cropping work on nutritional status is modified by access to agricultural equipment, and whether gender differences exist. The study finds that time spent in agricultural cropping work is negatively associated with BMI for non-overweight individuals, albeit of small magnitude, and this finding is consistent across different crop production processes. This suggests that agricultural interventions should not ignore the implications of increasing work intensities on nutrition. While increased agricultural production could improve nutritional status by increasing agricultural income and food, the gains in nutritional status could be offset by an increase in work effort of doing agricultural work. Our results suggest that it is possible that access to equipment reduced effort for one production activity, but increased work for other activities in the production process, such as in harvesting. Furthermore, we find that the BMI of women in households with a hand powered sprayer is positively related to time spent in weeding, fertilizing, and non-harvest activities, while it is negatively correlated for men. It is possible that access to a hand powered sprayer may have helped reduce women’s work, for example, in weeding, while this was not the case for men’s work such as in ridging and fertilizing. Further disaggregation of agricultural activities in the dataset would have been helpful to provide more insights on the gender roles.
Heterogeneity in male and female farmers’ preference for a profit‐enhancing and labor‐saving technology: The case of Direct‐Seeded Rice (DSR) in India
Joshi, Pramod Kumar; Khan, Md. Tajuddin; Kishore, Avinash. 2019
Joshi, Pramod Kumar; Khan, Md. Tajuddin; Kishore, Avinash. 2019
DOI : 10.1111/cjag.12205
Empowering Africa’s women farmers
Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela. 2019
Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela. 2019
Abstract | Link (37 B)
When Africa’s women farmers thrive, everyone benefits: the women themselves, the children in whom they invest, the communities that they feed, and the economies to which they contribute. With the right investments and policies, Africa’s woman-run farms could produce a bumper crop of development.
Women’s empowerment in agriculture and dietary quality across the life course: Evidence from Bangladesh
Sraboni, Esha; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. Washington, D.C. 2018
Sraboni, Esha; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. Washington, D.C. 2018
DOI : 10.2499/1024320686
Abstract | PDF (2.5 MB)
Using nationally representative survey data from rural Bangladesh, this paper examines the relationship between women’s empowerment in agriculture and indicators of individual dietary quality. Our findings suggest that women’s empowerment is associated with better dietary quality for individuals within the household, with varying effects across the life course. Women’s empowerment is associated with more diverse diets for children younger than five years, but empowerment measures are not consistently associated with increases in nutrient intake for this age group. Women’s empowerment is positively and significantly associated with adult men’s and women’s dietary diversity and nutrient intakes. Different empowerment domains may have different impacts on nutrition, but other characteristics, such as maternal schooling and household socioeconomic status, may play a more important role for younger children. The importance of maternal education in the dietary quality of young children, and the relatively greater importance of women’s empowerment for older children and adults, imply that policies designed to empower women and improve nutritional status should be informed by knowledge of which specific domains of women’s empowerment matter for particular nutritional outcomes at specific stages of the life course.
Using natural areas and empowering women to buffer food security and nutrition from climate shocks: Evidence from Ghana, Zambia, and Bangladesh
Cooper, Matthew. Washington, DC 2018
Cooper, Matthew. Washington, DC 2018
DOI : 10.2499/1032568631
Abstract | PDF (1.5 MB)
As climate change makes precipitation shocks more common, policymakers are becoming increasingly interested in protecting food systems and nutrition outcomes from the damaging effects of droughts and floods (Wheeler and von Braun, 2013). Increasing the resilience of nutrition and food security outcomes is especially critical throughout agrarian parts of the developing world, where human subsistence and well-being are directly affected by local rainfall. In this study, we use data from Feed the Future datasets from Ghana, Zambia, and Bangladesh to examine the impact of precipitation extremes on food security as well as the role of natural land cover and women’s empowerment in creating resilience. We first model the effects of extreme rainfall on indicators of nutrition and food security, and then examine whether women’s empowerment and environmental land cover types can dampen the effects of rainfall shocks on these food security and nutrition outcomes. Our results find that there is a strong association between extreme precipitation and household hunger. Further, they suggest that in certain contexts land cover types providing ecosystem services can reduce household hunger scores, that empowering women can mitigate the effects of precipitation shocks, and that there may be an interactive effect between ecosystem service availability and women’s empowerment.
Empowering women, enhancing nutrition, and ending poverty: IFPRI and Canada
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Washington, DC 2018
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Washington, DC 2018
Abstract | PDF (772.4 KB)
Global changes with wide-reaching impacts include rapid urbanization, climate change, conflict-driven migration, and dietary transitions as well as uncertainty regarding trade and foreign investment. More than ever, responding to these challenges will require a systems-oriented, multidisciplinary approach to reshaping agriculture and food systems so that they work for everyone. IFPRI will spearhead research to understand and address these trends, build evidence for sound policies at the country and regional levels, and continue to focus on empowering women. IFPRI’s long-standing partnership with Canada has generated cutting-edge research in support of improved food security and nutrition, particularly for women and children, and gender equity, and IFPRI looks forward to continuing to work together to end hunger and malnutrition.
Women's self-help groups, decision-making, and improved agricultural practices in India: From extension to practice
Raghunathan, Kalyani; Kannan, Samyuktha; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. Washington, DC 2018
Raghunathan, Kalyani; Kannan, Samyuktha; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. Washington, DC 2018
DOI : 10.2499/1046080777
Abstract | PDF (1.4 MB)
This research was undertaken as part of the Women Improving Nutrition through Group-based Strategies (WINGS) study, and was aimed at understanding ways to improve agricultural practices among women farmers in India. Effective agricultural extension is key to improving productivity, increasing farmers’ access to information, and promoting more diverse sets of crops and improved methods of cultivation. In India, however, the coverage of agricultural extension workers and the relevance of extension advice is poor. We investigate whether a women’s self-help group platform could be an effective way of improving access to information, women’s empowerment in agriculture, agricultural practices, and production diversity. We use cross-sectional data on close to 1000 women from 5 states in India, and employ nearest-neighbor matching models to match self-help group (SHG) and non-SHG women along a range of observed characteristics. We find that participation in an SHG increases women’s access to information and their participation in some agricultural decisions, but has limited impact on agricultural practices or outcomes, possibly due to financial constraints, social norms, and women’s domestic responsibilities. SHGs need to go beyond provision of information to changing the dynamics around women’s participation in agriculture to effectively translate knowledge into practice.
Tracking empowerment along the value chain: Testing a modified WEAI in the Feed the Future Zone of Influence in Bangladesh
Ahmed, Akhter U.; Malapit, Hazel J.; Pereira, Audrey; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Rubin, Deborah; Ghostlaw, Julie; Haque, Md. Latiful; Hossain, Nusrat Zaitun; Tauseef, Salauddin. Dhaka, Bangladesh; Washington, DC 2018
Ahmed, Akhter U.; Malapit, Hazel J.; Pereira, Audrey; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Rubin, Deborah; Ghostlaw, Julie; Haque, Md. Latiful; Hossain, Nusrat Zaitun; Tauseef, Salauddin. Dhaka, Bangladesh; Washington, DC 2018
Abstract | PDF (3.5 MB)
Upon request of the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) conducted this study to support USAID in assessing the state of empowerment and gender parity of men and women along the agricultural value chain in the Feed the Future (FTF) Zone of Influence (ZOI) in Bangladesh. Specifically, IFPRI’s Policy Research and Strategy Support Program (PRSSP), funded by USAID, piloted the modified Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) survey instruments in 10 upazilas (sub-districts) within the FTF ZOI across 1,200 households, which broadly belong to three economic activities of interest: (1) agricultural production, (2) agricultural entrepreneurship, and (3) agricultural sector employment. The quantitative survey was complemented by qualitative research to glean further insights into the facilitators and constraints of empowerment among various actors in the agricultural value chain. The data and analysis generated from this WEAI for Value Chain (WEAI4VC) study may inform USAID’s selection and design of interventions that may, in turn, maximize its programmatic impact on women and men’s empowerment as producers, entrepreneurs, and wage employees.
Qualitative research on women’s empowerment and participation in agricultural value chains in Bangladesh
Rubin, Deborah; Ferdousi, Shammi; Parvin, Aklima; Rahaman, S.M. Tahsin; Rahman, Shuchita; Rahman, Waziha; Redoy, Md. . Dhaka, Bangladesh; Washington, DC 2018
Rubin, Deborah; Ferdousi, Shammi; Parvin, Aklima; Rahaman, S.M. Tahsin; Rahman, Shuchita; Rahman, Waziha; Redoy, Md. . Dhaka, Bangladesh; Washington, DC 2018
Abstract | PDF (1.6 MB)
In Bangladesh, IFPRI has received support from USAID through its Policy Research and Strategy Support Program in Bangladesh (PRSSP) to work in the geographic areas targeted by Feed the Future interventions (known as the Zone of Influence) to construct this new WEAI4VC module. The qualitative research study, conducted by IFPRI field officers, complements a 1,200 household quantitative survey, looking in greater depth at the individual, household, and community level experiences of men and women to understand the consequences of value chain participation on them as producers, entrepreneurs, and wage workers on women’s empowerment. The quantitative study sampled 400 households for each of the three economic activities of interest – (1) agricultural production, (2) agricultural entrepreneurship, and (3) agriculture sector employment. It was carried out in ten administrative units (upazilas or sub-districts), and five villages in each upazila to total 50 villages.
WEAI Resource Center Website
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Washington, DC 2018
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Washington, DC 2018
Response to Garcia and Wanner “gender inequality and food security: lessons for the gender-responsive work of the international food policy research institute and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation” Food Security (2017) 9:1091–1103
Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. 2018
Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. 2018
DOI : 10.1007/s12571-018-0766-7
Abstract | Link (37 B)
The paper by Garcia and Wanner reviews examples of genderresponsive research and programming from the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, to discuss those genderresponsive approaches which are most successful for achieving women’s empowerment in agricultural development. It notes accomplishments and points out some shortcomings for both organizations to address. Although the objectives of the paper are worthwhile, we note important problems regarding methodology used, factual errors, and misrepresentation.
Review: Time use as an explanation for the agri-nutrition disconnect? Evidence from rural areas in low and middle-income countries
Johnston, Deborah; Stevano, Sara; Malapit, Hazel J.; Hull, Elizabeth; Kadiyala, Suneetha. 2018
Johnston, Deborah; Stevano, Sara; Malapit, Hazel J.; Hull, Elizabeth; Kadiyala, Suneetha. 2018
DOI : 10.1016/j.foodpol.2017.12.011
Abstract | Link
Time is a vital input into nutritional outcomes, as it is necessary for the production, procurement and preparation of food, child feeding and childcare. Thus, agricultural interventions may fail to improve nutritional outcomes if they do not take account of time constraints, particularly of rural women who spend a considerable portion of their time in agriculture. Given the potential trade-offs pertaining to time in productive vs. reproductive activities and its implications for maternal and child nutrition, the goal of this review is to systematically map and assess the available evidence, both qualitative and quantitative studies, agriculture-time use-nutrition pathway.
Through an analysis of 89 studies, identified through a systematic search, on rural areas of low and middle-income countries, we observe three findings. First, women play a key role in agriculture, as reflected in their time commitments. Second, evidence from a very limited set of studies suggests that agricultural interventions tend to increase time commitments in agriculture of the household members for whom impact is measured. Third, while changing time use tends to change nutritional outcomes, it does so in a range of complex ways and there is no agreement on the impact. Nutritional impacts are varied because households and household members respond to increased time burden and workload in different ways.
Women’s empowerment in agriculture and agricultural productivity: Evidence from rural maize farmer households in western Kenya
Dirro, Gracious M.; Seymour, Greg; Kassie, Menale; Muricho, Geoffrey; Muriithi, Beatrice Wambui . 2018
Dirro, Gracious M.; Seymour, Greg; Kassie, Menale; Muricho, Geoffrey; Muriithi, Beatrice Wambui . 2018
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0197995
Abstract | Link
This paper documents a positive relationship between maize productivity in western Kenya and women’s empowerment in agriculture, measured using indicators derived from the abbreviated version of the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index. Applying a cross-sectional instrumental-variable regression method to a data set of 707 maize farm households from western Kenya, we find that women’s empowerment in agriculture significantly increases maize productivity. Although all indicators of women’s empowerment significantly increase productivity, there is no significant association between the women’s workload (amount of time spent working) and maize productivity. Furthermore, the results show heterogenous effects with respect to women’s empowerment on maize productivity for farm plots managed jointly by a male and female and plots managed individually by only a male or female. More specifically, the results suggest that female- and male-managed plots experience significant improvements in productivity when the women who tend them are empowered. These findings provide evidence that women’s empowerment contributes not only to reducing the gender gap in agricultural productivity, but also to improving, specifically, productivity from farms managed by women. Thus, rural development interventions in Kenya that aim to increase agricultural productivity—and, by extension, improve food security and reduce poverty—could achieve greater impact by integrating women’s empowerment into existing and future projects.
Does women's time in domestic work and agriculture affect women's and children's dietary diversity? Evidence from Bangladesh, Nepal, Cambodia, Ghana, and Mozambique
Komatsu, Hitomi; Malapit, Hazel J.; Theis, Sophie. 2018
Komatsu, Hitomi; Malapit, Hazel J.; Theis, Sophie. 2018
DOI : 10.1016/j.foodpol.2018.07.002
Abstract | Link
There are concerns that increasing women’s engagement in agriculture could negatively affect nutrition by limiting the time available for nutrition-improving reproductive work. However, very few empirical studies provide evidence to support these concerns. This paper examines the relationship between women’s time spent in domestic work and agriculture and women’s and children’s dietary diversity. Using data from Bangladesh, Nepal, Cambodia, Ghana, and Mozambique, we find that women’s domestic work and cooking time are positively correlated with more diverse diets. We also find differential effects depending on asset poverty status. In Mozambique, working long hours in agriculture is negatively associated with women’s dietary diversity score in nonpoor women, but is positively associated with poor women’s dietary diversity and poor children’s minimum acceptable diet. This suggests that agriculture as a source of food and income is particularly important for the asset poor. Our results reveal that women’s time allocation and nutrition responses to agricultural interventions are likely to vary by socioeconomic status and local context.
Context and measurement: An analysis of the relationship between intrahousehold decision making and autonomy
Seymour, Gregory; Peterman, Amber. 2018
Seymour, Gregory; Peterman, Amber. 2018
DOI : 10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.06.027
Abstract | Link
Using data from two culturally distinct locales, Bangladesh and Ghana, we investigate whether men and women who report sole decision making in a particular domain experience stronger (or weaker) feelings of autonomous motivation—measured using the Relative Autonomy Index (RAI)—compared to those who report joint decision making. Used primarily in psychology, the RAI measures the extent to which an individual’s actions are intrinsically or extrinsically motivated, where higher scores indicate greater autonomy. On aggregate, we find differences between men and women, and across countries, in the significance of association between the individual’s level of participation in decision-making and autonomy. In addition, we find heterogeneity in the strength of this association, depending on the domain (e.g., productive versus personal decisions) and whether partners agree on who normally makes decisions. These findings imply that details related to context and measurement matter for understanding individual decision-making power. We argue that all research using information on decision-making should include a careful analysis of men’s and women’s perceptions of decision making within the household, which may be useful for calibrating indicators to suit spicific contexts
Empowerment, climate change adaptation and agricultural production: Evidence from Niger
Wouterse, Fleur Stephanie. Netherlands 2018
Wouterse, Fleur Stephanie. Netherlands 2018
DOI : 10.3920/978-90-8686-873-5_3
Abstract | Link
We use new household level data from Niger and regression analysis to study the role of drought perception and human capital – including empowerment – in climate change adaptation through the digging of zaї pits and effects of these pits on agricultural productivity. We find that selection of households into adoption of zaï pits is influenced by the perception that the frequency of droughts has increased. More educated, experienced, and empowered households are also more likely to have put in place zaï pits. Accounting for endogeneity of adoption, zaї pits are found to significantly increase cereal yields. Our counterfactual analysis reveals that even though all households would benefit from adoption of zai pits, the effect would be significantly larger for households that did not adopt if they had adopted. For the latter group, empowerment in
particular is associated with significantly higher yields.
particular is associated with significantly higher yields.
Gender parity and inorganic fertilizer technology adoption in farm households: Evidence from Niger
Tankari, Mahamadou Roufahi. Netherlands 2018
Tankari, Mahamadou Roufahi. Netherlands 2018
DOI : 10.3920/978-90-8686-873-5_5
Abstract | Link
This study seeks to address the gap in understanding the role of gender parity in inorganic fertiliser technology adoption in Niger. The empirical strategy is firstly based on the calculation of the household parity indicator following the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) approach and, secondly, it relies on binary regressions. It appears that gender parity in the household affects negatively the adoption of inorganic fertiliser. Thus, accompanying measures are needed to correct this negative effect of gender parity on the fertiliser technology adoption. The study also highlights a number of determinants of gender parity and adoption of fertilisers in agricultural households that can serve policy design.
Women’s empowerment in agriculture and dietary quality across the life course: Evidence from Bangladesh
Sraboni, Esha; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. 2018
Sraboni, Esha; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. 2018
DOI : 10.1016/j.foodpol.2018.09.001
Abstract | Link (37 B)
Using nationally-representative survey data from rural Bangladesh, we examine the relationship between women’s empowerment in agriculture and indicators of individual dietary quality. Our findings suggest that women’s empowerment is associated with better dietary quality of individuals within the household, but the strength of this association varies across the life course. Women’s empowerment is correlated with more diverse diets of children under five, but empowerment measures are not consistently associated with increases in nutrient intake for this age group. Rather, maternal schooling and household socio-economic status play a more important role for younger children. Women’s empowerment is positively and significantly associated with adult men’s and women’s dietary diversity and nutrient intakes. Empowerment does not benefit all individuals within the household equally, with gender bias emerging in adolescence. Variations in the strength of the association between women’s empowerment and different individuals’ dietary quality across the life course has implications for the design and targeting of interventions to improve dietary quality, particularly of women, children, and adolescent girls.
How do agricultural development projects empower women? Linking strategies with expected outcomes
Johnson, Nancy; Balagamwala, Mysbah; Pinkstaff, Crossley; Theis, Sophie; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. 2018
Johnson, Nancy; Balagamwala, Mysbah; Pinkstaff, Crossley; Theis, Sophie; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. 2018
Abstract | Link
Increasing numbers of development agencies and individual projects espouse objectives of women’s empowerment, and there is a growing body of conceptual and empirical work on how to define and measure empowerment. What is missing is an evidence base on how and how much agricultural development projects can contribute to empowerment. What activities or combinations of activities contribute to empowerment, through what mechanisms, and in what contexts? While it will take time to fill that gap, this paper makes two contributions in that direction. First, it develops a framework for clarifying the objectives of development projects that differentiates between projects that seek to reach, benefit or empower women. Next, the paper identifies and analyzes the strategies of 13 agricultural development projects that were designed to empower women. Strategies are analyzed in terms of activities undertaken and domains of empowerment targeted. While strategies vary across projects, they have several characteristics in common that would be expected to contribute to empowerment.
How do agricultural development projects aim to empower women?: Insights from an analysis of project strategies
Johnson, Nancy L.; Balagamwala, Mysbah; Pinkstaff, Crossley; Theis, Sophie; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. Washington, D.C. 2017
Johnson, Nancy L.; Balagamwala, Mysbah; Pinkstaff, Crossley; Theis, Sophie; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. Washington, D.C. 2017
Abstract | PDF (2.6 MB)
Increasing numbers of development agencies and individual projects espouse objectives of women’s empowerment, yet there has been little systematic work on mechanisms by which interventions can enhance women’s empowerment. This gap exists because of the lack of consensus on indicators as well as the lack of attention paid to measuring the effects of different types of interventions on empowerment. This paper identifies the types of strategies employed by 13 agricultural development projects within the International Food Policy Research Institute’s Gender, Agriculture, and Assets Project Phase 2 (GAAP2) that have explicit objectives of empowering women. We distinguish between reach, benefit, and empowerment as objectives of agricultural development projects. Simply including women does not necessarily benefit them, and even activities that benefit do not necessarily empower. To identify strategies to empower women, we build on the domains included in the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) and are working with the GAAP2 portfolio of projects to develop an empowerment metric that is applicable in the project setting (a project-level WEAI, or pro-WEAI). We have identified the following potential domains to be included in pro-WEAI: input into production decision making, control over resources, control over income, leadership, time, physical mobility, intrahousehold relationships, individual empowerment, reduction in gender-based violence, and decision making on nutrition. The GAAP2 projects address these domains through a wide variety of activities that can be grouped into four main types: (1) direct and indirect provision of goods and services; (2) forming or strengthening groups, organizations, or platforms and networks that involve women; (3) strengthening knowledge and capacity through agricultural extension, business and finance training, nutrition behavior change communication, and other training; and (4) changing gender norms through one-way awareness raising or two-way community conversations about gender issues and their implications. In general, projects with activities in more activity areas target more domains of empowerment, and most projects target a core set of six empowerment domains. With the exception of intrahousehold relationships, which is always targeted by activities designed to influence gender norms, projects target domains with different types of activities or combinations of activities. This setup suggests that there may be no one-to-one link between a specific activity and empowerment benefits, and that implementation modalities will determine whether and how an activity contributes to women’s empowerment. The effectiveness of these project strategies will be assessed using both quantitative and qualitative methods throughout the GAAP2 research project.
Empowerment, adaptation, and agricultural production evidence from Niger
Wouterse, Fleur Stephanie. Washington, D.C. 2017
Wouterse, Fleur Stephanie. Washington, D.C. 2017
Abstract | PDF (574.3 KB)
Located at the heart of West Africa, Niger is a landlocked country with three-quarters of its territory covered by the Sahara Desert. Niger’s climate is mostly arid, and it is one of the least developed countries in the world. The vast majority of its population lives in rural areas, and the country is strongly dependent on agriculture. Agriculture is predominantly rainfed and yields rely on one rainy season. Although productivity in Niger has shown a positive trend, agriculture has been strongly affected in recent decades by several crises partly or entirely due to extreme weather events. Farmers pursue a number of strategies in the face of climatic (and nonclimatic) stressors including soil and water conservation methods such as barriers, terracing, and planting pits, and their adaptive capacity is deemed critical for estimating the economic impact of climate change. An understanding of climate change adaptation processes at the farm household level is therefore crucial to the development of well-designed and targeted mitigation policies. In this study, we use new data from Niger and regression analysis to study climate change adaptation through the digging of zaї pits and food production and the role of human capital measures therein. We find that adaptation is influenced by the perception that the frequency of droughts has increased and by the availability of financial resources and household labor. Adaptation is also influenced by educational attainment—both formal and Koranic school education. Adaptation of zaї pits is found to play an important role in food productivity. Our counterfactual analysis reveals that even though all households would benefit from adaptation, the effect is found to be significantly larger for households that actually did adapt relative to those that did not, indicating that the prospects of closing the productivity gap through encouraging adaptation in less well-endowed households are limited.
The Abbreviated Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (A-WEAI)
Malapit, Hazel J.; Pinkstaff, Crossley; Sproule, Kathryn; Kovarik, Chiara; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela. Washington, D.C. 2017
Malapit, Hazel J.; Pinkstaff, Crossley; Sproule, Kathryn; Kovarik, Chiara; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela. Washington, D.C. 2017
Abstract | PDF (733.7 KB)
The fifth Sustainable Development Goal—to “achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls”—reflects a growing consensus that these are key objectives of development policy in their own right, while also contributing to improved productivity and increased efficiency, especially in agriculture and food production. To deliver on this commitment to women’s empowerment in development calls for appropriate measures that can be used to diagnose the scope and major sources of disempowerment and to measure progress. The Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) is a survey-based tool codeveloped by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative, and the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) (Alkire et al. 2013). The index was originally designed as a monitoring and evaluation tool for the U.S. government’s Feed the Future initiative to directly capture women’s empowerment and inclusion levels in the agricultural sector. Since its launch in February 2012, the WEAI has been implemented in the 19 Feed the Future focus countries. As with any new metric, pilot testing in a few selected countries with limited sample sizes is insufficient to demonstrate how the WEAI would perform when rolled out on a wider scale. Concerns expressed by users of the WEAI led to the creation of an abbreviated version—the A-WEAI. This paper begins by presenting a brief overview of the WEAI and its construction. It then proceeds to discuss (1) the background and motivation behind the creation of the A-WEAI; (2) the steps taken to develop the AWEAI— namely, cognitive testing and piloting of different modules, particularly those that were difficult to administer in the field; (3) analysis of the pilot data from Bangladesh and Uganda; (4) domain-specific comparisons of the different pilot versions; and (5) robustness checks and empowerment diagnostics from the A-WEAI as compared with the original WEAI. The paper concludes by summarizing the modifications to the original WEAI and discussing possibilities for further development of empowerment metrics based on the WEAI.
Women's empowerment in agriculture: Implications for technical efficiency in rural Bangladesh
Seymour, Gregory. 2017
Seymour, Gregory. 2017
DOI : 10.1111/agec.12352
Measuring time use in development settings
Seymour, Gregory; Malapit, Hazel J.; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. Washington D.C. 2017
Seymour, Gregory; Malapit, Hazel J.; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. Washington D.C. 2017
Abstract | Link
This paper discusses the challenges associated with collecting time-use data in developing countries. The paper suggests potential solutions, concentrating on the two most common time-use methods used in development settings: stylized questions and time diaries. The paper identifies a significant lack of rigorous empirical research comparing these methods in development settings, and begins to fill this gap by analyzing data from Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index surveys in Bangladesh and Uganda. The surveys include stylized questions and time diary estimates for the same individual. The study finds limited evidence that stylized questions are more feasible (in terms of interview length) but also less accurate, compared with time diaries. These results are attributed to the relatively greater cognitive burden imposed on respondents by stylized questions. The paper discusses the importance of broadening the scope of time-use research to capture the quantity and quality of time, to achieve richer insights into gendered time-use patterns and trends. The paper suggests a path forward that combines mainstream time-use data collection methods with promising methodological innovations from other disciplines.
Empowerment, climate change adaptation, and agricultural production: Evidence from Niger
Wouterse, Fleur Stephanie. 2017
Wouterse, Fleur Stephanie. 2017
DOI : 10.1007/s10584-017-2096-8
Using cognitive interviewing to improve the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index survey instruments: Evidence from Bangladesh and Uganda
Malapit, Hazel Jean L.; Sproule, Kathryn; Kovarik, Chiara. 2017
Malapit, Hazel Jean L.; Sproule, Kathryn; Kovarik, Chiara. 2017
DOI : 10.19268/JGAFS.222017.1
Empowerment and agricultural production: Evidence from rural households in Niger
Wouterse, Fleur Stephanie. Washington, DC 2016
Wouterse, Fleur Stephanie. Washington, DC 2016
Abstract | PDF (555 KB)
Niger is a landlocked Sahelian country, two-thirds of which is in the Sahara desert, with only one-eighth of the land considered arable. Nevertheless, more than 90 percent of Niger’s labor force is employed in agriculture, which is predominantly subsistence oriented. Since the great famines of the 1970s and 1980s, the country has pursued agrarian intensification through technological change to address challenges to the food security situation. However, this approach has failed to recognize that the main characteristic of the Sahelian part of West Africa is the intricate complexity of the social, environmental, and economic dimensions that differentially affect male and female rural dwellers. One example is the patrilineal tenure system, which under increased population pressure has led to the exclusion of women and youth from agriculture in some areas. The Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) indicates that access to land is one important dimension of empowerment. In order to assess the role of empowerment in agricultural production, we use new household- and individual-level WEAI data from Niger and regression analysis. Our results show that empowerment is important for agricultural production and that households in which adult individuals are more empowered are more productive. This means that other and possibly more effective pathways to agrarian intensification exist and important agricultural productivity gains could be made by empowering men and women in rural households.
Gender dimensions on farmers’ preferences for direct-seeded rice with drum seeder in India
Khan, Md. Tajuddin; Kishore, Avinash; Joshi, Pramod Kumar. Washington, D.C. 2016
Khan, Md. Tajuddin; Kishore, Avinash; Joshi, Pramod Kumar. Washington, D.C. 2016
Abstract | PDF (2.4 MB)
This study measures the willingness of male and female farmers to pay for climate-smart technology in rice. Rice is the most important crop in India in terms ofarea, production,and consumption. It is also the biggest source of greenhouse gas emissions among all crops. Direct-seeded rice (DSR)with drum seeder, a climate-smart technology, requires less labor and water and is more climate friendly than transplanted rice; yet,its adoption is slow in India. Theauthors of this studycarried out a discrete choice experiment with 666 farmers from the Palghar and Thane districts of Maharashtra to measure their willingness to pay for drum seeders—a key piece of equipment for adopting DSR. Both male and female farmers were surveyed to capture the heterogeneity in their valuation of the key attributes of drumseeders. Although both male and female farmers prefer cheaper drum seeders, the marginal valuation of different attributes of the drum seeder varies by the farmers’ gender. The authors also used the Women Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI), developed by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), to collect self-reported data on the role and say of women in agriculture. The respective gender roles in the family and on the farm seem to explain some of this difference. Men have a greater say over how the family spends the cash. Accordingly, men tend to have a higher willingness to pay for attributes that increase income (increase in yield) or reduce cash costs (reduction in the seedrate). Women contribute a large share of the labor for transplanting rice, much of whichis unpaid work on family farms. Not surprisingly, therefore, women seem to value labor saving significantly more than their male counterparts. Further, theWEAI data show that although men in the family have more say, women do have an influence on decisions regarding crop production and the adoption of new technologies,to an extent. Therefore, to enhance the adoption of drum seeders, the product designers and extension workers should also target women
Using cognitive interviewing to improve the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index survey instruments: Evidence from Bangladesh and Uganda
Malapit, Hazel J.; Sproule, Kathryn; Kovarik, Chiara. Washington, D.C. 2016
Malapit, Hazel J.; Sproule, Kathryn; Kovarik, Chiara. Washington, D.C. 2016
Abstract | PDF (716.8 KB)
This paper describes the cognitive interviews undertaken in Bangladesh and Uganda in 2014 as part of the second round of pilots intended to refine the original version of the Women’s Empowerment in Agricultural Index (WEAI). The WEAI is a survey-based tool that assesses gendered empowerment in agriculture. Baseline data were collected in 19 countries following the WEAI’s launch in 2012, but implementers reported a number of problems, such as confusion among both respondents and enumerators regarding the meaning of abstract concepts in the autonomy sub-module and difficulties recalling the sequence and duration of activities in the time-use sub-module. In our cognitive interviews, we asked detailed follow-up questions such as, “Did you think this question was difficult, and if so, why?” and “Can you explain this term to me in your own words?” The results revealed potential problems with the survey questions and informed the revision of the WEAI, now called the Abbreviated WEAI (or A-WEAI), which has less potential for response errors.
Gender empowerment gaps in agriculture and children’s well-being in Bangladesh
Malapit, Hazel J.; Sraboni, Esha; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Ahmed, Akhter U.. Washington, D.C. 2015
Malapit, Hazel J.; Sraboni, Esha; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Ahmed, Akhter U.. Washington, D.C. 2015
Abstract | PDF (1.2 MB)
Development programs that reduce gender gaps are expected to not only improve women’s well-being, but also their children’s. This draws on a growing body of literature that shows a strong positive association between women’s status and control over resources and improvements in children’s outcomes, particularly nutrition and education. In this paper, we provide empirical evidence on the relationship between empowerment gaps between men and women in the same household and children’s well-being using nationally representative data from the 2012 Bangladesh Integrated Household Survey (BIHS). We measure children’s well-being using nutritional status for younger children (ages 0–5) and education outcomes for older children (ages 6–10 and 11–17). We measure relative empowerment using direct measures of empowerment collected from men and women in the same households using the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index. Our findings suggest that gender gaps in empowerment are only weakly linked to children’s nutrition, although different measures of empowerment reveal significant differences between boys’ and girls’ outcomes, depending on the measures used. Overall, the household head’s (father’s) education is significantly associated with better nutrition and education outcomes for children, but younger girls (ages 6–10) and older boys and girls (ages 11–17) are more likely to receive more education when mothers are more educated. Our results on parental education suggest that fathers’ empowerment may be reflecting a “wealth” effect that is invested in children’s nutrition and education when they are young, while mothers’ empowerment becomes more important in girls’ education in general and keeping older children, regardless of sex, in school.
How does women’s time in reproductive work and agriculture affect maternal and child nutrition? Evidence from Bangladesh, Cambodia, Ghana, Mozambique, and Nepal
Komatsu, Hitomi; Theis, Sophie; Malapit, Hazel J.. Washington, DC 2015
Komatsu, Hitomi; Theis, Sophie; Malapit, Hazel J.. Washington, DC 2015
Abstract | PDF (1.5 MB)
There are concerns that increasing women’s engagement in agriculture could have a negative effect on nutrition because it limits the time available for nutrition-improving reproductive work. However, very few empirical studies have been able to analyze whether these concerns are well-founded. This paper examines whether an increase in women’s time in agriculture adversely affects maternal and child nutrition, and whether the lack of women’s time in reproductive work leads to poorer nutrition. Using data from Bangladesh, Cambodia, Ghana, Mozambique, and Nepal, we find that on the whole, in poor households, reductions in women’s reproductive work time are detrimental to nutrition, especially for children. In contrast, women’s and children’s nutrition in nonpoor households is less sensitive to reductions in time on reproductive work. Working long hours in agriculture reduces women’s dietary diversity score in Ghana and nonpoor women’s in Mozambique. However, for poor women and children in Mozambique, and children in Nepal, working in agriculture in fact increases dietary diversity. This suggests that agriculture as a source of food and income is particularly important for the poor. Our results illustrate that women’s time allocation and nutrition responses to agricultural interventions are likely to vary according to socioeconomic status and local context.
Using cognitive pretesting to improve the Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index survey
Kovarik, Chiara; Malapit, Hazel J.; Sproule, Kathryn. San Francisco, CA 2015
Kovarik, Chiara; Malapit, Hazel J.; Sproule, Kathryn. San Francisco, CA 2015
Women’s empowerment mitigates the negative effects of low production diversity on maternal and child nutrition in Nepal
Malapit, Hazel J.; Kadiyala, Suneetha; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Cunningham, Kenda; Tyagi, Parul. 2015
Malapit, Hazel J.; Kadiyala, Suneetha; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Cunningham, Kenda; Tyagi, Parul. 2015
DOI : 10.1080/00220388.2015.1018904
What dimensions of women’s empowerment in agriculture matter for nutrition in Ghana?
Malapit, Hazel J.; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. 2015
Malapit, Hazel J.; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. 2015
DOI : 10.1016/j.foodpol.2015.02.003
Measuring progress toward empowerment: Women's empowerment in agriculture index: Baseline report
Malapit, Hazel J.; Sproule, Kathryn; Kovarik, Chiara; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Ramzan, Farzana; Hogue, Emily; Alkire, Sabina. Washington, D.C. 2014
Malapit, Hazel J.; Sproule, Kathryn; Kovarik, Chiara; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Ramzan, Farzana; Hogue, Emily; Alkire, Sabina. Washington, D.C. 2014
Abstract | PDF (7.8 MB)
This report provides a comprehensive analysis of the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) baseline survey results, summarizing both findings from the WEAI survey and the relationships between the WEAI and various outcomes of interest to the US Government’s Feed the Future initiative. These poverty, health, and nutrition outcomes include both factors that might affect empowerment and outcomes that might result from empowerment. The analysis includes thirteen countries from five regions and compares their baseline survey scores. WEAI scores range from a high of 0.98 in Cambodia to a low of 0.66 in Bangladesh.
What dimensions of women’s empowerment in agriculture matter for nutrition-related practices and outcomes in Ghana?
Malapit, Hazel J.; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. Washington, D.C. 2014
Malapit, Hazel J.; Quisumbing, Agnes R.. Washington, D.C. 2014
Abstract | PDF (1.3 MB)
This paper investigates linkages between women’s empowerment in agriculture and the nutritional status of women and children using 2012 baseline data from the Feed the Future population-based survey in Ghana. The sample consists of 3,344 children and 3,640 women and is statistically representative of the northernmost regions of Ghana where the Feed the Future programs are operating.
Women’s empowerment in agriculture
Sraboni, Esha; Malapit, Hazel J.; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Ahmed, Akhter U.. 2014
Sraboni, Esha; Malapit, Hazel J.; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Ahmed, Akhter U.. 2014
DOI : 10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.03.025
Data needs for gender analysis in agriculture
Doss, Cheryl. Washington, DC 2013
Doss, Cheryl. Washington, DC 2013
Abstract | PDF (375.5 KB)
To support gender analysis in agriculture, household surveys should be better designed to capture gender-specific control and ownership of agricultural resources such as male-owned, female-owned, and jointly owned assets. This paper offers guidelines on how to improve data collection efforts to ensure that women farmers are interviewed and that their voices are heard.
The Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI): Results from the 2011-2012 Bangladesh Integrated Household Survey
Sraboni, Esha; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Ahmed, Akhter U.. Washington, DC 2013
Sraboni, Esha; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Ahmed, Akhter U.. Washington, DC 2013
Abstract | PDF (1.3 MB)
The Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) is a new survey-based index designed to measure the empowerment, agency, and inclusion of women in the agricultural sector in an effort to identify ways to overcome those obstacles and constraints (Alkire et al. 2012). This technical report, prepared by researchers from the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), presents the WEAI, computed for the Feed the Future zone as well as rural Bangladesh as a whole.
Women’s empowerment in agriculture: What role for food security in Bangladesh?
Sraboni, Esha; Malapit, Hazel J.; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Ahmed, Akhter U.. Washington, D.C. 2013
Sraboni, Esha; Malapit, Hazel J.; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Ahmed, Akhter U.. Washington, D.C. 2013
Abstract | PDF (725.2 KB)
Using nationally representative survey data from Bangladesh, we examine the relationship between women’s empowerment in agriculture and two measures of household food security: per adult equivalent calorie availability and dietary diversity. We use the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index to assess the extent of women’s empowerment in agriculture and instrumental variables techniques to correct for the potential endogeneity of empowerment. We find that the overall women’s empowerment score, the number of groups in which women actively participate, women’s control of assets, and a narrowing gap in empowerment between men and women within households are positively associated with calorie availability and dietary diversity.
The Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index
Alkire, Sabina; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Peterman, Amber; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Seymour, Greg; Vaz, Ana. 2013
Alkire, Sabina; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Peterman, Amber; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Seymour, Greg; Vaz, Ana. 2013
DOI : 10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.06.007
Women's empowerment in agriculture index
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
Abstract | PDF (1.4 MB)
Women play a critical and potentially transformative role in agricultural growth in developing countries, but they face persistent obstacles and economic constraints limiting further inclusion in agriculture. The Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) measures the empowerment, agency, and inclusion of women in the agriculture sector in an effort to identify ways to overcome those obstacles and constraints. The Index is a significant innovation in its field and aims to increase understanding of the connections between women’s empowerment, food security, and agricultural growth. It measures the roles and extent of women’s engagement in the agriculture sector in five domains: (1) decisions about agricultural production, (2) access to and decisionmaking power over productive resources, (3) control over use of income, (4) leadership in the community, and (5) time use. It also measures women’s empowerment relative to men within their households.
Women's empowerment in agriculture index: case study profile Aysha, Bangladesh
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
Women's empowerment in agriculture index: case study profile Angela, Guatemala
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
Women's empowerment in agriculture index: case study profile Maria, Guatemala
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
Women's empowerment in agriculture index: case study profile Florence, Uganda
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
Women's empowerment in agriculture index: case study profile Seema, Bangladesh
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
Women's empowerment in agriculture index: case study profile Peace, Uganda
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
Women's empowerment in agriculture index: case study profile Harriet, Uganda
International Food Policy Research Insitute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
International Food Policy Research Insitute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
Women's empowerment in agriculture index: case study profile: Guatemala, Ingrid
International Food Policy Research Insitute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
International Food Policy Research Insitute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
Women's empowerment in agriculture index: case study profile Isabel, Guatemala
International Food Policy Research Insitute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
International Food Policy Research Insitute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
Women's empowerment in agriculture index: case study profile Lilian, Uganda
International Food Policy Research Insitute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
International Food Policy Research Insitute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
Women's empowerment in agriculture index: case study profile: Bangladesh, Nadia
International Food Policy Research Insitute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
International Food Policy Research Insitute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
Women's empowerment in agriculture index: case study profile: Bangladesh, Naju
International Food Policy Research Insitute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
International Food Policy Research Insitute (IFPRI). Washington, D.C. 2012
The Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index
Alkire, Sabina; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Peterman, Amber; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Seymour, Greg; Vaz, Ana. Washington, D.C. 2012
Alkire, Sabina; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth Suseela; Peterman, Amber; Quisumbing, Agnes R.; Seymour, Greg; Vaz, Ana. Washington, D.C. 2012
Abstract | PDF (2.1 MB)
The Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) is a new survey-based index designed to measure the empowerment, agency, and inclusion of women in the agricultural sector. The WEAI was initially developed as a tool to reflect women’s empowerment that may result from the United States government’s Feed the Future Initiative, which commissioned the development of the WEAI. The WEAI can also be used more generally to assess the state of empowerment and gender parity in agriculture, to identify key areas in which empowerment needs to be strengthened, and to track progress over time.
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